Well picked Rain Papers images
Most top quality rainwater goods reproduction I noticed:
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Disposition covering via SkeletalMess, used in combination with cheers.
Lagunitas @NoVa Brewfest
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Jonathon (c) involving flower nurseries Tore & Beer at a cubicle.
, Centreville, Anaure. Sat, 35 Neulich 08.
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The venue: Kendu These kinds of, 60 kilometers via Kisumu (Kenya). Photography by way of Sören Säf, Probably 2008.
Comfy Throwaway H2o Storage containers images
A few nice plastic water tanks images I found:
Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center: main hall panorama (SR-71, Space Shuttle, F-4 Corsair, et al)
Image by
Quoting :
No reconnaissance aircraft in history has operated globally in more hostile airspace or with such complete impunity than the SR-71, the world’s fastest jet-propelled aircraft. The Blackbird’s performance and operational achievements placed it at the pinnacle of aviation technology developments during the Cold War.
This Blackbird accrued about 2,800 hours of flight time during 24 years of active service with the U.S. Air Force. On its last flight, March 6, 1990, Lt. Col. Ed Yielding and Lt. Col. Joseph Vida set a speed record by flying from Los Angeles to Washington, D.C., in 1 hour, 4 minutes, and 20 seconds, averaging 3,418 kilometers (2,124 miles) per hour. At the flight’s conclusion, they landed at Washington-Dulles International Airport and turned the airplane over to the Smithsonian.
Transferred from the United States Air Force.
Manufacturer:
Designer:
Date:
1964
Country of Origin:
United States of America
Dimensions:
Overall: 18ft 5 15/16in. x 55ft 7in. x 107ft 5in., 169998.5lb. (5.638m x 16.942m x 32.741m, 77110.8kg)
Other: 18ft 5 15/16in. x 107ft 5in. x 55ft 7in. (5.638m x 32.741m x 16.942m)
Materials:
Titanium
Physical Description:
Twin-engine, two-seat, supersonic strategic reconnaissance aircraft; airframe constructed largley of titanium and its alloys; vertical tail fins are constructed of a composite (laminated plastic-type material) to reduce radar cross-section; Pratt and Whitney J58 (JT11D-20B) turbojet engines feature large inlet shock cones.
• • • • •
Quoting :
By V-J Day, September 2, 1945, Corsair pilots had amassed an 11:1 kill ratio against enemy aircraft. The aircraft’s distinctive inverted gull-wing design allowed ground clearance for the huge, three-bladed Hamilton Standard Hydromatic propeller, which spanned more than 4 meters (13 feet). The Pratt and Whitney R-2800 radial engine and Hydromatic propeller was the largest and one of the most powerful engine-propeller combinations ever flown on a fighter aircraft.
Charles Lindbergh flew bombing missions in a Corsair with Marine Air Group 31 against Japanese strongholds in the Pacific in 1944. This airplane is painted in the colors and markings of the Corsair Sun Setter, a Marine close-support fighter assigned to the USS Essex in July 1944.
Transferred from the United States Navy.
Manufacturer:
Date:
1940
Country of Origin:
United States of America
Dimensions:
Overall: 460 x 1020cm, 4037kg, 1250cm (15ft 1 1/8in. x 33ft 5 9/16in., 8900lb., 41ft 1/8in.)
Materials:
All metal with fabric-covered wings behind the main spar.
Physical Description:
R-2800 radial air-cooled engine with 1,850 horsepower, turned a three-blade Hamilton Standard Hydromatic propeller with solid aluminum blades spanning 13 feet 1 inch; wing bent gull-shaped on both sides of the fuselage.
• • • • •
See of this, and the article.
Details, quoting from | :
Manufacturer:
Country of Origin:
United States of America
Dimensions:
Overall: 57 ft. tall x 122 ft. long x 78 ft. wing span, 150,000 lb.
(1737.36 x 3718.57 x 2377.44cm, 68039.6kg)
Materials:
Aluminum airframe and body with some fiberglass features; payload bay doors are graphite epoxy composite; thermal tiles are simulated (polyurethane foam) except for test samples of actual tiles and thermal blankets.
The first Space Shuttle orbiter, "Enterprise," is a full-scale test vehicle used for flights in the atmosphere and tests on the ground; it is not equipped for spaceflight. Although the airframe and flight control elements are like those of the Shuttles flown in space, this vehicle has no propulsion system and only simulated thermal tiles because these features were not needed for atmospheric and ground tests. "Enterprise" was rolled out at Rockwell International’s assembly facility in Palmdale, California, in 1976. In 1977, it entered service for a nine-month-long approach-and-landing test flight program. Thereafter it was used for vibration tests and fit checks at NASA centers, and it also appeared in the 1983 Paris Air Show and the 1984 World’s Fair in New Orleans. In 1985, NASA transferred "Enterprise" to the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum.
Transferred from National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center: Space exhibit panorama (hang glider, Space Shuttle Enterprise)
Image by
See of this, and the article.
Details, quoting from | :
Manufacturer:
Country of Origin:
United States of America
Dimensions:
Overall: 57 ft. tall x 122 ft. long x 78 ft. wing span, 150,000 lb.
(1737.36 x 3718.57 x 2377.44cm, 68039.6kg)
Materials:
Aluminum airframe and body with some fiberglass features; payload bay doors are graphite epoxy composite; thermal tiles are simulated (polyurethane foam) except for test samples of actual tiles and thermal blankets.
The first Space Shuttle orbiter, "Enterprise," is a full-scale test vehicle used for flights in the atmosphere and tests on the ground; it is not equipped for spaceflight. Although the airframe and flight control elements are like those of the Shuttles flown in space, this vehicle has no propulsion system and only simulated thermal tiles because these features were not needed for atmospheric and ground tests. "Enterprise" was rolled out at Rockwell International’s assembly facility in Palmdale, California, in 1976. In 1977, it entered service for a nine-month-long approach-and-landing test flight program. Thereafter it was used for vibration tests and fit checks at NASA centers, and it also appeared in the 1983 Paris Air Show and the 1984 World’s Fair in New Orleans. In 1985, NASA transferred "Enterprise" to the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum.
Transferred from National Aeronautics and Space Administration
• • •
Quoting from :
The Space Shuttle Enterprise ( : OV-101) was the first . It was built for as part of the to perform test flights in the atmosphere. It was constructed without or a functional , and was therefore not capable of .
Originally, Enterprise had been intended to be refitted for orbital flight, which would have made it the second space shuttle to fly after . However, during the construction of Columbia, details of the final design changed, particularly with regard to the weight of the fuselage and wings. Refitting Enterprise for spaceflight would have involved dismantling the orbiter and returning the sections to subcontractors across the country. As this was an expensive proposition, it was determined to be less costly to build around a body frame (STA-099) that had been created as a test article. Similarly, Enterprise was considered for refit to replace Challenger after the latter was , but was built from structural spares instead.
Service
Construction began on the first orbiter on June 4, 1974. Designated OV-101, it was originally planned to be named Constitution and unveiled on , September 17, 1976. A write-in campaign by to asked that the orbiter be named after the , featured on the television show . Although Ford did not mention the campaign, the president—who during World War II had served on the aircraft carrier that served with —said that he was "partial to the name" and overrode NASA officials.
The design of OV-101 was not the same as that planned for , the first flight model; the tail was constructed differently, and it did not have the interfaces to mount pods. A large number of subsystems—ranging from main engines to radar equipment—were not installed on this vehicle, but the capacity to add them in the future was retained. Instead of a , its surface was primarily .
In mid-1976, the orbiter was used for ground vibration tests, allowing engineers to compare data from an actual flight vehicle with theoretical models.
On September 17, 1976, Enterprise was rolled out of plant at . In recognition of its fictional namesake, Star Trek creator and most of the principal cast of the original series of Star Trek were on hand at the dedication ceremony.
Approach and landing tests (ALT)
Main article:
On January 31, 1977, it was taken by road to at , to begin operational testing.
While at NASA Dryden, Enterprise was used by NASA for a variety of ground and flight tests intended to validate aspects of the shuttle program. The initial nine-month testing period was referred to by the acronym ALT, for "Approach and Landing Test". These tests included a maiden "flight" on February 18, 1977 atop a (SCA) to measure structural loads and ground handling and braking characteristics of the mated system. Ground tests of all orbiter subsystems were carried out to verify functionality prior to atmospheric flight.
The mated Enterprise/SCA combination was then subjected to five test flights with Enterprise unmanned and unactivated. The purpose of these test flights was to measure the flight characteristics of the mated combination. These tests were followed with three test flights with Enterprise manned to test the shuttle flight control systems.
Enterprise underwent five free flights where the craft separated from the SCA and was landed under astronaut control. These tests verified the flight characteristics of the orbiter design and were carried out under several aerodynamic and weight configurations. On the fifth and final glider flight, problems were revealed, which had to be addressed before the first orbital launch occurred.
On August 12, 1977, the space shuttle Enterprise flew on its own for the first time.
Preparation for STS-1
Following the ALT program, Enterprise was ferried among several NASA facilities to configure the craft for vibration testing. In June 1979, it was mated with an external tank and solid rocket boosters (known as a configuration) and tested in a launch configuration at .
Retirement
With the completion of critical testing, Enterprise was partially disassembled to allow certain components to be reused in other shuttles, then underwent an international tour visiting France, Germany, , the United Kingdom, Canada, and the U.S. states of California, , and (during the ). It was also used to fit-check the at . Finally, on November 18, 1985, Enterprise was ferried to Washington, D.C., where it became property of the .
Post-Challenger
After the Challenger disaster, NASA considered using Enterprise as a replacement. However refitting the shuttle with all of the necessary equipment needed for it to be used in space was considered, but instead it was decided to use spares constructed at the same time as and to build .
Post-Columbia
In 2003, after the of during re-entry, the conducted tests at , which used an air gun to shoot foam blocks of similar size, mass and speed to that which struck Columbia at a test structure which mechanically replicated the orbiter wing leading edge. They removed a fiberglass panel from Enterprise’s wing to perform analysis of the material and attached it to the test structure, then shot a foam block at it. While the panel was not broken as a result of the test, the impact was enough to permanently deform a seal. As the (RCC) panel on Columbia was 2.5 times weaker, this suggested that the RCC leading edge would have been shattered. Additional tests on the fiberglass were canceled in order not to risk damaging the test apparatus, and a panel from Discovery was tested to determine the effects of the foam on a similarly-aged RCC leading edge. On July 7, 2003, a foam impact test created a hole 41 cm by 42.5 cm (16.1 inches by 16.7 inches) in the protective RCC panel. The tests clearly demonstrated that a foam impact of the type Columbia sustained could seriously breach the protective RCC panels on the wing leading edge.
The board determined that the probable cause of the accident was that the foam impact caused a breach of a reinforced carbon-carbon panel along the leading edge of Columbia’s left wing, allowing hot gases generated during re-entry to enter the wing and cause structural collapse. This caused Columbia to spin out of control, breaking up with the loss of the entire crew.
Museum exhibit
Enterprise was stored at the hangar at before it was restored and moved to the newly built Smithsonian’s ‘s at Dulles International Airport, where it has been the centerpiece of the space collection. On April 12, 2011, NASA announced that , the most traveled orbiter in the fleet, will be added to the collection once the Shuttle fleet is retired. When that happens, Enterprise will be moved to the in New York City, to a newly constructed hangar adjacent to the museum. In preparation for the anticipated relocation, engineers evaluated the vehicle in early 2010 and determined that it was safe to fly on the once again.
Categories: Rainwater Storage Tags: Comfy, Containers, images, storage, throwaway
Well put together Choice Drinking water To ascertain images
A few nice alternative water sources images I found:
Black Walnut, Juglans nigra ….#2
Image by
Taken on June 8, 2012 in Waco city, Texas state, Southern of America
Vietnamese named : Ốc Chó đen
Common names : Black Walnut, Eastern black walnut.
Scientist name : Juglans nigra L..
Synonyms :
Family Juglandaceae / Wallnut family . Họ Ốc Chó.
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Subkingdom : Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Subclass: Hamamelididae
Order: Juglandales
Genus : Juglans L. – walnut
Species : Juglans nigra L. – black walnut
****
**** : CLICK ON LINK TO READ MORE, PLEASE.
Edible Uses
Edible Parts: Oil; Sap; Seed.
Edible Uses: Oil; Sweetener.
Seed – raw or cooked. A sweet, rich distinctive delicious flavour it makes an excellent dessert nut and is also widely used in confections, cakes etc[2, 34, 82, 183]. The kernel is hard to extract and the oil it contains quickly turns rancid[101, 159]. The unripe fruits can be pickled[183]. The seed is borne in solitary fruits or in pairs and is 3 – 4cm in diameter[82, 229]. The nuts can leave a permanent stain on clothing[226]. An edible oil is obtained from the seed[101, 183]. A sweet taste but it tends to go rancid quickly[159]. Used as a seasoning in bread, squash and other foods[183]. The tree yields a sweet sap that can be drunk or concentrated into syrup or sugar[101, 102, 183]. It is tapped in spring.
Medicinal Uses
Plants For A Future can not take any responsibility for any adverse effects from the use of plants. Always seek advice from a professional before using a plant medicinally.
Alterative; Anodyne; Antiinflammatory; Astringent; Blood purifier; Detergent; Laxative; Pectoral; Vermifuge.
The bark and leaves are alterative, anodyne, astringent, blood tonic, detergent, emetic, laxative, pectoral and vermifuge[4, 222, 257]. Especially useful in the treatment of skin diseases, black walnut is of the highest value in curing scrofulous diseases, herpes, eczema etc[4]. An infusion of the bark is used to treat diarrhoea and also to stop the production of milk, though a strong infusion can be emetic[21, 257]. The bark is chewed to allay the pain of toothache and it is also used as a poultice to reduce the pain of headaches[222, 257]. The juice from the fruit husk is applied externally as a treatment for ringworm[222, 257]. The husk is chewed in the treatment of colic and applied as a poultice to inflammations[222]. The burnt kernels, taken in red wine, are said to prevent falling hair, making it fair[269]. Green husks are supposed to ease the pain of toothache[269]. A tea made from the leaves is astringent[222]. An infusion has been used to lower high blood pressure[257]. It can be used as a cleansing wash[21]. The pulverized leaves have been rubbed on the affected parts of the body to destroy ringworm[257]. The oil from the ripe seeds has been used externally in the treatment of gangrene, leprosy, and wounds[269]. The sap has been used to treat inflammations[
Other Uses
Beads; Compost; Dye; Filter; Herbicide; Insecticide; Oil; Repellent; Tannin; Wood.
A brown dye is obtained from the nuts, husks and bark[14, 57, 101, 159]. It does not require a mordant[169]. The husks can be dried for later use[169]. A brown dye is obtained from the leaves and stems[168]. It does not require a mordant[168]. The dye turns black if it is prepared in an iron pot[168]. The leaves can be dried for later use[169]. The husks are rich in tannin[226]. The green fruit husks can be boiled to provide a yellow dye[269]. The husks can be made into a high quality coal (does the report mean charcoal?[K]) and is then used as a filter[226]. It was used in gas masks[226]. The woody shells on the fruits have been used to make jewellery[269]. Insects are said to avoid the walnut tree, hence it is often used as a poor man’s insect repellent. When rubbed on faces, walnut leaves are said to repel flies[269]. The leaves repel fleas and have been used as a strewing herb[20, 201, 257]. They are also used as an insecticide against bed bugs[222]. The ground up husks are also insecticidal[226]. The leaves produce substances that depress the growth of other plants. These substances are washed onto the ground by rain and inhibit the growth of plants beneath the tree[18, 20, 159]. The roots also produce substances that are toxic to many plant species, especially apples (Malus species), members of the Ericaceae, Potentilla spp and the white pines (certain Pinus spp.)[200]. An alternative ingredient of ‘QR’ herbal compost activator[32]. This is a dried and powdered mixture of several herbs that can be added to a compost heap in order to speed up bacterial activity and thus shorten the time needed to make the compost[K]. Wood – very ornamental, heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, very durable. Easily worked, it glues well, does not warp, shrink or swell much and takes a good polish. It weighs 38lb per cubic foot. A very valuable timber tree and possibly the most sought after wood in N. America, it is used in cabinet making, the interior finishes of houses, furniture, airplanes, ship building, veneer etc[1, 46, 61, 82, 101, 149, 227, 229, 235, 269].
****
Juglans nigra, the Eastern black walnut, a species of flowering tree in the walnut family, Juglandaceae, is native to eastern North America. It grows mostly in riparian zones, from southern Ontario, west to southeast South Dakota, south to Georgia, northern Florida and southwest to central Texas. Isolated wild trees in the upper Ottawa Valley may be an isolated native population or may have derived from planted trees.
The black walnut is a large deciduous tree attaining heights of 30–40 metres (98–130 ft). Under forest competition, it develops a tall, clear bole; the open-grown form has a short bole and broad crown. The bark is grey-black and deeply furrowed. The pith of the twigs contains air spaces. The leaves are alternate, 30–60 cm long, odd-pinnate with 15–23 leaflets, with the largest leaflets located in the center, 7–10 cm long and 2–3 cm broad. The male flowers are in drooping catkins 8–10 cm long, the female flowers are terminal, in clusters of two to five, ripening during the autumn into a fruit (nut) with a brownish-green, semifleshy husk and a brown, corrugated nut. The whole fruit, including the husk, falls in October; the seed is relatively small and very hard. The tree tends to crop more heavily in alternate years.
While its primary native region is the Midwest and east-central United States, the black walnut was introduced into Europe in 1629. It is cultivated there and in North America as a forest tree for its high-quality wood. More nuts are produced by open-grown trees. Black walnut is more resistant to frost than the English or Persian walnut, but thrives best in the warmer regions of fertile, lowland soils with a high water table. It is a light-demanding species. The wood is used to make furniture, flooring, and rifle stocks, and oil is pressed from the seeds. Nuts are harvested by hand from wild trees. About 65% of the annual wild harvest comes from the U.S. state of Missouri, and the largest processing plant is operated by Hammons Products in Stockton, Missouri. The black walnut nutmeats are used as an ingredient in food, while the hard black walnut shell is used commercially in abrasive cleaning, cosmetics, and oil well drilling and water filtration.
Where the range of J. nigra overlaps that of the Texas black walnut J. microcarpa, the two species sometimes interbreed, producing populations with characteristics intermediate between the two species
Planting
Black walnut plantings can be made to produce timber, nuts, or both timber and nuts. Patented timber-type trees were selected and released from Purdue University in the early 1990′s. These trees have been sporadically available from nurseries. Varieties include Purdue #1, which can be used for both timber and nut production, though nut quality is poor compared to varieties selected specifically as nut producers.
Grafted, nut-producing trees are available from several nurseries operating in the U.S. Selections worth considering include Thomas, Neel #1, Thomas Myers, Pounds #2, Stoker, Surprise, Emma K, Sparrow, S127, and McGinnis. Several older varieties, such as Kwik Krop, are still in cultivation; while they make decent nuts, they would not be recommended for commercial planting. A variety index and characteristics guide is available from Missouri Extension.
Pollination requirements should be considered when planting black walnuts. As is typical of many species in Juglandaceae, Juglans nigra trees tend to be dichogamous, i.e.. produce pollen first and then pistillate flowers or else produce pistillate flowers and then pollen. An early pollen-producer should be grouped with other varieties that produce pistillate flowers so all varieties benefit from overlap. Cranz, Thomas, and Neel #1 make a good pollination trio. A similar group for more northern climates would be Sparrow, S127, and Mintle.
Food
Black walnut nuts are shelled commercially in the United States. The nutmeats provide a robust, distinctive, natural flavor and crunch as a food ingredient. Popular uses include ice cream, bakery goods and confections. Consumers include black walnuts in traditional treats, such as cakes, cookies, fudge, and pies, during the fall holiday season. The nuts’ nutritional profile leads to uses in other foods, such as salads, fish, pork, chicken, vegetables and pasta dishes.
Nutritionally similar to the milder-tasting English walnut, the black walnut kernel is high in unsaturated fat and protein. An analysis of nut oil from five named J. nigra cultivars (Ogden, Sparrow, Baugh, Carter and Thomas) showed that the most prevalent fatty acid in J. nigra oil is linoleic acid (27.80–33.34 g/100g dry kernel), followed (in the same units) by oleic acid (14.52–24.40), linolenic acid (1.61–3.23), palmitic acid (1.61–2.15), and stearic acid (1.07–1.69).[2] The oil from the cultivar Carter had the highest mol percentage of linoleate (61.6), linolenate (5.97%), and palmitate (3.98%); the oil from the cultivar Baugh had the highest mol percentage of oleate (42.7%); the oil from the cultivar Ogden has the highest mol percentage of stearate (2.98%).
Tapped in spring, the tree yields a sweet sap that can be drunk or concentrated into syrup or sugar
Nut processing by hand
The extraction of the kernel from the fruit of the black walnut is difficult. The thick hard shell is tightly bound by tall ridges to a thick husk. The husk is best removed when green as the nuts taste better if it is removed then.[citation needed] Rolling the nut underfoot on a hard surface such as a driveway is a common method; commercial huskers use a car tire rotating against a metal mesh. Some take a thick plywood board and drill a nut sized hole in it (from one to two inches in diameter) and smash the nut through using a hammer. The nut goes through and the husk remains behind.
While the flavor of the Juglans nigra kernel is prized, the difficulty in preparing it may account for the wider popularity and availability of the Persian walnut.
Dye
Black walnut drupes contain juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), plumbagin (yellow quinone pigments), and tannin.[3] The brownish-black dye was used by early settlers to dye hair.[4] Extracts of the outer, soft part of the drupe are still used as a natural dye for handicrafts.[5] The tannins present in walnuts act as a mordant, aiding in the dyeing process,[6][7] and are usable as a dark ink or wood stain
Wood
Black walnut is highly prized for its dark-colored, true heartwood. It is heavy and strong, yet easily split and worked. Walnut wood has historically been used for gunstocks, furniture, flooring, paddles, coffins, and a variety of other wood products. Due to its value, forestry officials often are called on to track down walnut poachers; in 2004, DNA testing was used to solve one such poaching case, involving a 55 foot (16m) tree worth US,500. Black walnut has a density of 660 kg per cubic meter (41.2 lb/cubic foot),[9] which makes it less dense than oak.
Pests
Maggots (larvae of Rhagoletis completa and Rhagoletis suavis) in the husk are common, though more a nuisance than a serious problem for amateurs, who may simply remove the affected husk as soon as infestation is noticed. The maggots develop entirely within the husk, thus the quality of the nutmeat is not affected.[10] However, infestations of maggots are undesirable because they make the husk difficult to remove and are unsightly. Maggots can be serious for commercial walnut growers, who tend to use chemical treatments to prevent damage to the crop.[11] Some organic controls also exist, such as removing and disposing of infested nuts.[12]
The walnut curculio (Conotrachelus retentus) grows to 5 mm long as an adult. The adult sucks plant juices through a snout. The eggs are laid in fruits in the spring and summer. Many nuts are lost due to damage from the larvae, which burrow through the nut shell.[13]
Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) larvae eat walnut kernels, as well as apple and pear seeds.[14]
A disease complex known as thousand cankers disease has been threatening black walnut in several western states.[15] This disease has recently been discovered in Tennessee, and could potentially have devastating effects on the species in the eastern United States
Toxicity
The roots, nut husks, and leaves secrete a substance into the soil called juglone that is a respiratory inhibitor to some plants. A number of other plants (most notably white birch) are also poisoned by juglone, and should not be planted in close proximity to a black walnut. The plant can cause contact dermatitis in humans. [17] Horses are susceptible to laminitis from exposure to black walnut wood in bedding
Big tree
The largest known living black walnut tree is on Sauvie Island, Oregon.
The national champion black walnut is on a residential property in Sauvie Island, Oregon. It is 8 feet 7 inches (2.62 m) diameter at breast height and 112 feet (34 m) tall, with a crown spread of 144 feet (44 m
Black Walnut, Juglans nigra ….#9
Image by
Leaves and the young fruits
Taken on May 27, 2012 in Waco city, Texas state, Southern of America
Vietnamese named : Ốc Chó đen
Common names : Black Walnut, Eastern black walnut.
Scientist name : Juglans nigra L..
Synonyms :
Family Juglandaceae / Wallnut family . Họ Ốc Chó.
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Subkingdom : Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Subclass: Hamamelididae
Order: Juglandales
Genus : Juglans L. – walnut
Species : Juglans nigra L. – black walnut
****
**** : CLICK ON LINK TO READ MORE, PLEASE.
Edible Uses
Edible Parts: Oil; Sap; Seed.
Edible Uses: Oil; Sweetener.
Seed – raw or cooked. A sweet, rich distinctive delicious flavour it makes an excellent dessert nut and is also widely used in confections, cakes etc[2, 34, 82, 183]. The kernel is hard to extract and the oil it contains quickly turns rancid[101, 159]. The unripe fruits can be pickled[183]. The seed is borne in solitary fruits or in pairs and is 3 – 4cm in diameter[82, 229]. The nuts can leave a permanent stain on clothing[226]. An edible oil is obtained from the seed[101, 183]. A sweet taste but it tends to go rancid quickly[159]. Used as a seasoning in bread, squash and other foods[183]. The tree yields a sweet sap that can be drunk or concentrated into syrup or sugar[101, 102, 183]. It is tapped in spring.
Medicinal Uses
Plants For A Future can not take any responsibility for any adverse effects from the use of plants. Always seek advice from a professional before using a plant medicinally.
Alterative; Anodyne; Antiinflammatory; Astringent; Blood purifier; Detergent; Laxative; Pectoral; Vermifuge.
The bark and leaves are alterative, anodyne, astringent, blood tonic, detergent, emetic, laxative, pectoral and vermifuge[4, 222, 257]. Especially useful in the treatment of skin diseases, black walnut is of the highest value in curing scrofulous diseases, herpes, eczema etc[4]. An infusion of the bark is used to treat diarrhoea and also to stop the production of milk, though a strong infusion can be emetic[21, 257]. The bark is chewed to allay the pain of toothache and it is also used as a poultice to reduce the pain of headaches[222, 257]. The juice from the fruit husk is applied externally as a treatment for ringworm[222, 257]. The husk is chewed in the treatment of colic and applied as a poultice to inflammations[222]. The burnt kernels, taken in red wine, are said to prevent falling hair, making it fair[269]. Green husks are supposed to ease the pain of toothache[269]. A tea made from the leaves is astringent[222]. An infusion has been used to lower high blood pressure[257]. It can be used as a cleansing wash[21]. The pulverized leaves have been rubbed on the affected parts of the body to destroy ringworm[257]. The oil from the ripe seeds has been used externally in the treatment of gangrene, leprosy, and wounds[269]. The sap has been used to treat inflammations[
Other Uses
Beads; Compost; Dye; Filter; Herbicide; Insecticide; Oil; Repellent; Tannin; Wood.
A brown dye is obtained from the nuts, husks and bark[14, 57, 101, 159]. It does not require a mordant[169]. The husks can be dried for later use[169]. A brown dye is obtained from the leaves and stems[168]. It does not require a mordant[168]. The dye turns black if it is prepared in an iron pot[168]. The leaves can be dried for later use[169]. The husks are rich in tannin[226]. The green fruit husks can be boiled to provide a yellow dye[269]. The husks can be made into a high quality coal (does the report mean charcoal?[K]) and is then used as a filter[226]. It was used in gas masks[226]. The woody shells on the fruits have been used to make jewellery[269]. Insects are said to avoid the walnut tree, hence it is often used as a poor man’s insect repellent. When rubbed on faces, walnut leaves are said to repel flies[269]. The leaves repel fleas and have been used as a strewing herb[20, 201, 257]. They are also used as an insecticide against bed bugs[222]. The ground up husks are also insecticidal[226]. The leaves produce substances that depress the growth of other plants. These substances are washed onto the ground by rain and inhibit the growth of plants beneath the tree[18, 20, 159]. The roots also produce substances that are toxic to many plant species, especially apples (Malus species), members of the Ericaceae, Potentilla spp and the white pines (certain Pinus spp.)[200]. An alternative ingredient of ‘QR’ herbal compost activator[32]. This is a dried and powdered mixture of several herbs that can be added to a compost heap in order to speed up bacterial activity and thus shorten the time needed to make the compost[K]. Wood – very ornamental, heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, very durable. Easily worked, it glues well, does not warp, shrink or swell much and takes a good polish. It weighs 38lb per cubic foot. A very valuable timber tree and possibly the most sought after wood in N. America, it is used in cabinet making, the interior finishes of houses, furniture, airplanes, ship building, veneer etc[1, 46, 61, 82, 101, 149, 227, 229, 235, 269].
****
Juglans nigra, the Eastern black walnut, a species of flowering tree in the walnut family, Juglandaceae, is native to eastern North America. It grows mostly in riparian zones, from southern Ontario, west to southeast South Dakota, south to Georgia, northern Florida and southwest to central Texas. Isolated wild trees in the upper Ottawa Valley may be an isolated native population or may have derived from planted trees.
The black walnut is a large deciduous tree attaining heights of 30–40 metres (98–130 ft). Under forest competition, it develops a tall, clear bole; the open-grown form has a short bole and broad crown. The bark is grey-black and deeply furrowed. The pith of the twigs contains air spaces. The leaves are alternate, 30–60 cm long, odd-pinnate with 15–23 leaflets, with the largest leaflets located in the center, 7–10 cm long and 2–3 cm broad. The male flowers are in drooping catkins 8–10 cm long, the female flowers are terminal, in clusters of two to five, ripening during the autumn into a fruit (nut) with a brownish-green, semifleshy husk and a brown, corrugated nut. The whole fruit, including the husk, falls in October; the seed is relatively small and very hard. The tree tends to crop more heavily in alternate years.
While its primary native region is the Midwest and east-central United States, the black walnut was introduced into Europe in 1629. It is cultivated there and in North America as a forest tree for its high-quality wood. More nuts are produced by open-grown trees. Black walnut is more resistant to frost than the English or Persian walnut, but thrives best in the warmer regions of fertile, lowland soils with a high water table. It is a light-demanding species. The wood is used to make furniture, flooring, and rifle stocks, and oil is pressed from the seeds. Nuts are harvested by hand from wild trees. About 65% of the annual wild harvest comes from the U.S. state of Missouri, and the largest processing plant is operated by Hammons Products in Stockton, Missouri. The black walnut nutmeats are used as an ingredient in food, while the hard black walnut shell is used commercially in abrasive cleaning, cosmetics, and oil well drilling and water filtration.
Where the range of J. nigra overlaps that of the Texas black walnut J. microcarpa, the two species sometimes interbreed, producing populations with characteristics intermediate between the two species
Planting
Black walnut plantings can be made to produce timber, nuts, or both timber and nuts. Patented timber-type trees were selected and released from Purdue University in the early 1990′s. These trees have been sporadically available from nurseries. Varieties include Purdue #1, which can be used for both timber and nut production, though nut quality is poor compared to varieties selected specifically as nut producers.
Grafted, nut-producing trees are available from several nurseries operating in the U.S. Selections worth considering include Thomas, Neel #1, Thomas Myers, Pounds #2, Stoker, Surprise, Emma K, Sparrow, S127, and McGinnis. Several older varieties, such as Kwik Krop, are still in cultivation; while they make decent nuts, they would not be recommended for commercial planting. A variety index and characteristics guide is available from Missouri Extension.
Pollination requirements should be considered when planting black walnuts. As is typical of many species in Juglandaceae, Juglans nigra trees tend to be dichogamous, i.e.. produce pollen first and then pistillate flowers or else produce pistillate flowers and then pollen. An early pollen-producer should be grouped with other varieties that produce pistillate flowers so all varieties benefit from overlap. Cranz, Thomas, and Neel #1 make a good pollination trio. A similar group for more northern climates would be Sparrow, S127, and Mintle.
Food
Black walnut nuts are shelled commercially in the United States. The nutmeats provide a robust, distinctive, natural flavor and crunch as a food ingredient. Popular uses include ice cream, bakery goods and confections. Consumers include black walnuts in traditional treats, such as cakes, cookies, fudge, and pies, during the fall holiday season. The nuts’ nutritional profile leads to uses in other foods, such as salads, fish, pork, chicken, vegetables and pasta dishes.
Nutritionally similar to the milder-tasting English walnut, the black walnut kernel is high in unsaturated fat and protein. An analysis of nut oil from five named J. nigra cultivars (Ogden, Sparrow, Baugh, Carter and Thomas) showed that the most prevalent fatty acid in J. nigra oil is linoleic acid (27.80–33.34 g/100g dry kernel), followed (in the same units) by oleic acid (14.52–24.40), linolenic acid (1.61–3.23), palmitic acid (1.61–2.15), and stearic acid (1.07–1.69).[2] The oil from the cultivar Carter had the highest mol percentage of linoleate (61.6), linolenate (5.97%), and palmitate (3.98%); the oil from the cultivar Baugh had the highest mol percentage of oleate (42.7%); the oil from the cultivar Ogden has the highest mol percentage of stearate (2.98%).
Tapped in spring, the tree yields a sweet sap that can be drunk or concentrated into syrup or sugar
Nut processing by hand
The extraction of the kernel from the fruit of the black walnut is difficult. The thick hard shell is tightly bound by tall ridges to a thick husk. The husk is best removed when green as the nuts taste better if it is removed then.[citation needed] Rolling the nut underfoot on a hard surface such as a driveway is a common method; commercial huskers use a car tire rotating against a metal mesh. Some take a thick plywood board and drill a nut sized hole in it (from one to two inches in diameter) and smash the nut through using a hammer. The nut goes through and the husk remains behind.
While the flavor of the Juglans nigra kernel is prized, the difficulty in preparing it may account for the wider popularity and availability of the Persian walnut.
Dye
Black walnut drupes contain juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), plumbagin (yellow quinone pigments), and tannin.[3] The brownish-black dye was used by early settlers to dye hair.[4] Extracts of the outer, soft part of the drupe are still used as a natural dye for handicrafts.[5] The tannins present in walnuts act as a mordant, aiding in the dyeing process,[6][7] and are usable as a dark ink or wood stain
Wood
Black walnut is highly prized for its dark-colored, true heartwood. It is heavy and strong, yet easily split and worked. Walnut wood has historically been used for gunstocks, furniture, flooring, paddles, coffins, and a variety of other wood products. Due to its value, forestry officials often are called on to track down walnut poachers; in 2004, DNA testing was used to solve one such poaching case, involving a 55 foot (16m) tree worth US,500. Black walnut has a density of 660 kg per cubic meter (41.2 lb/cubic foot),[9] which makes it less dense than oak.
Pests
Maggots (larvae of Rhagoletis completa and Rhagoletis suavis) in the husk are common, though more a nuisance than a serious problem for amateurs, who may simply remove the affected husk as soon as infestation is noticed. The maggots develop entirely within the husk, thus the quality of the nutmeat is not affected.[10] However, infestations of maggots are undesirable because they make the husk difficult to remove and are unsightly. Maggots can be serious for commercial walnut growers, who tend to use chemical treatments to prevent damage to the crop.[11] Some organic controls also exist, such as removing and disposing of infested nuts.[12]
The walnut curculio (Conotrachelus retentus) grows to 5 mm long as an adult. The adult sucks plant juices through a snout. The eggs are laid in fruits in the spring and summer. Many nuts are lost due to damage from the larvae, which burrow through the nut shell.[13]
Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) larvae eat walnut kernels, as well as apple and pear seeds.[14]
A disease complex known as thousand cankers disease has been threatening black walnut in several western states.[15] This disease has recently been discovered in Tennessee, and could potentially have devastating effects on the species in the eastern United States
Toxicity
The roots, nut husks, and leaves secrete a substance into the soil called juglone that is a respiratory inhibitor to some plants. A number of other plants (most notably white birch) are also poisoned by juglone, and should not be planted in close proximity to a black walnut. The plant can cause contact dermatitis in humans. [17] Horses are susceptible to laminitis from exposure to black walnut wood in bedding
Big tree
The largest known living black walnut tree is on Sauvie Island, Oregon.
The national champion black walnut is on a residential property in Sauvie Island, Oregon. It is 8 feet 7 inches (2.62 m) diameter at breast height and 112 feet (34 m) tall, with a crown spread of 144 feet (44 m
Black Walnut, Juglans nigra ….#8
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The young fruits
Seed – raw or cooked. A sweet, rich distinctive delicious flavour it makes an excellent dessert nut and is also widely used in confections, cakes etc
Taken on May 27, 2012 in Waco city, Texas state, Southern of America
Vietnamese named : Ốc Chó đen
Common names : Black Walnut, Eastern black walnut.
Scientist name : Juglans nigra L..
Synonyms :
Family Juglandaceae / Wallnut family . Họ Ốc Chó.
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Subkingdom : Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Subclass: Hamamelididae
Order: Juglandales
Genus : Juglans L. – walnut
Species : Juglans nigra L. – black walnut
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**** : CLICK ON LINK TO READ MORE, PLEASE.
Edible Uses
Edible Parts: Oil; Sap; Seed.
Edible Uses: Oil; Sweetener.
Seed – raw or cooked. A sweet, rich distinctive delicious flavour it makes an excellent dessert nut and is also widely used in confections, cakes etc[2, 34, 82, 183]. The kernel is hard to extract and the oil it contains quickly turns rancid[101, 159]. The unripe fruits can be pickled[183]. The seed is borne in solitary fruits or in pairs and is 3 – 4cm in diameter[82, 229]. The nuts can leave a permanent stain on clothing[226]. An edible oil is obtained from the seed[101, 183]. A sweet taste but it tends to go rancid quickly[159]. Used as a seasoning in bread, squash and other foods[183]. The tree yields a sweet sap that can be drunk or concentrated into syrup or sugar[101, 102, 183]. It is tapped in spring.
Medicinal Uses
Plants For A Future can not take any responsibility for any adverse effects from the use of plants. Always seek advice from a professional before using a plant medicinally.
Alterative; Anodyne; Antiinflammatory; Astringent; Blood purifier; Detergent; Laxative; Pectoral; Vermifuge.
The bark and leaves are alterative, anodyne, astringent, blood tonic, detergent, emetic, laxative, pectoral and vermifuge[4, 222, 257]. Especially useful in the treatment of skin diseases, black walnut is of the highest value in curing scrofulous diseases, herpes, eczema etc[4]. An infusion of the bark is used to treat diarrhoea and also to stop the production of milk, though a strong infusion can be emetic[21, 257]. The bark is chewed to allay the pain of toothache and it is also used as a poultice to reduce the pain of headaches[222, 257]. The juice from the fruit husk is applied externally as a treatment for ringworm[222, 257]. The husk is chewed in the treatment of colic and applied as a poultice to inflammations[222]. The burnt kernels, taken in red wine, are said to prevent falling hair, making it fair[269]. Green husks are supposed to ease the pain of toothache[269]. A tea made from the leaves is astringent[222]. An infusion has been used to lower high blood pressure[257]. It can be used as a cleansing wash[21]. The pulverized leaves have been rubbed on the affected parts of the body to destroy ringworm[257]. The oil from the ripe seeds has been used externally in the treatment of gangrene, leprosy, and wounds[269]. The sap has been used to treat inflammations[
Other Uses
Beads; Compost; Dye; Filter; Herbicide; Insecticide; Oil; Repellent; Tannin; Wood.
A brown dye is obtained from the nuts, husks and bark[14, 57, 101, 159]. It does not require a mordant[169]. The husks can be dried for later use[169]. A brown dye is obtained from the leaves and stems[168]. It does not require a mordant[168]. The dye turns black if it is prepared in an iron pot[168]. The leaves can be dried for later use[169]. The husks are rich in tannin[226]. The green fruit husks can be boiled to provide a yellow dye[269]. The husks can be made into a high quality coal (does the report mean charcoal?[K]) and is then used as a filter[226]. It was used in gas masks[226]. The woody shells on the fruits have been used to make jewellery[269]. Insects are said to avoid the walnut tree, hence it is often used as a poor man’s insect repellent. When rubbed on faces, walnut leaves are said to repel flies[269]. The leaves repel fleas and have been used as a strewing herb[20, 201, 257]. They are also used as an insecticide against bed bugs[222]. The ground up husks are also insecticidal[226]. The leaves produce substances that depress the growth of other plants. These substances are washed onto the ground by rain and inhibit the growth of plants beneath the tree[18, 20, 159]. The roots also produce substances that are toxic to many plant species, especially apples (Malus species), members of the Ericaceae, Potentilla spp and the white pines (certain Pinus spp.)[200]. An alternative ingredient of ‘QR’ herbal compost activator[32]. This is a dried and powdered mixture of several herbs that can be added to a compost heap in order to speed up bacterial activity and thus shorten the time needed to make the compost[K]. Wood – very ornamental, heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, very durable. Easily worked, it glues well, does not warp, shrink or swell much and takes a good polish. It weighs 38lb per cubic foot. A very valuable timber tree and possibly the most sought after wood in N. America, it is used in cabinet making, the interior finishes of houses, furniture, airplanes, ship building, veneer etc[1, 46, 61, 82, 101, 149, 227, 229, 235, 269].
****
Juglans nigra, the Eastern black walnut, a species of flowering tree in the walnut family, Juglandaceae, is native to eastern North America. It grows mostly in riparian zones, from southern Ontario, west to southeast South Dakota, south to Georgia, northern Florida and southwest to central Texas. Isolated wild trees in the upper Ottawa Valley may be an isolated native population or may have derived from planted trees.
The black walnut is a large deciduous tree attaining heights of 30–40 metres (98–130 ft). Under forest competition, it develops a tall, clear bole; the open-grown form has a short bole and broad crown. The bark is grey-black and deeply furrowed. The pith of the twigs contains air spaces. The leaves are alternate, 30–60 cm long, odd-pinnate with 15–23 leaflets, with the largest leaflets located in the center, 7–10 cm long and 2–3 cm broad. The male flowers are in drooping catkins 8–10 cm long, the female flowers are terminal, in clusters of two to five, ripening during the autumn into a fruit (nut) with a brownish-green, semifleshy husk and a brown, corrugated nut. The whole fruit, including the husk, falls in October; the seed is relatively small and very hard. The tree tends to crop more heavily in alternate years.
While its primary native region is the Midwest and east-central United States, the black walnut was introduced into Europe in 1629. It is cultivated there and in North America as a forest tree for its high-quality wood. More nuts are produced by open-grown trees. Black walnut is more resistant to frost than the English or Persian walnut, but thrives best in the warmer regions of fertile, lowland soils with a high water table. It is a light-demanding species. The wood is used to make furniture, flooring, and rifle stocks, and oil is pressed from the seeds. Nuts are harvested by hand from wild trees. About 65% of the annual wild harvest comes from the U.S. state of Missouri, and the largest processing plant is operated by Hammons Products in Stockton, Missouri. The black walnut nutmeats are used as an ingredient in food, while the hard black walnut shell is used commercially in abrasive cleaning, cosmetics, and oil well drilling and water filtration.
Where the range of J. nigra overlaps that of the Texas black walnut J. microcarpa, the two species sometimes interbreed, producing populations with characteristics intermediate between the two species
Planting
Black walnut plantings can be made to produce timber, nuts, or both timber and nuts. Patented timber-type trees were selected and released from Purdue University in the early 1990′s. These trees have been sporadically available from nurseries. Varieties include Purdue #1, which can be used for both timber and nut production, though nut quality is poor compared to varieties selected specifically as nut producers.
Grafted, nut-producing trees are available from several nurseries operating in the U.S. Selections worth considering include Thomas, Neel #1, Thomas Myers, Pounds #2, Stoker, Surprise, Emma K, Sparrow, S127, and McGinnis. Several older varieties, such as Kwik Krop, are still in cultivation; while they make decent nuts, they would not be recommended for commercial planting. A variety index and characteristics guide is available from Missouri Extension.
Pollination requirements should be considered when planting black walnuts. As is typical of many species in Juglandaceae, Juglans nigra trees tend to be dichogamous, i.e.. produce pollen first and then pistillate flowers or else produce pistillate flowers and then pollen. An early pollen-producer should be grouped with other varieties that produce pistillate flowers so all varieties benefit from overlap. Cranz, Thomas, and Neel #1 make a good pollination trio. A similar group for more northern climates would be Sparrow, S127, and Mintle.
Food
Black walnut nuts are shelled commercially in the United States. The nutmeats provide a robust, distinctive, natural flavor and crunch as a food ingredient. Popular uses include ice cream, bakery goods and confections. Consumers include black walnuts in traditional treats, such as cakes, cookies, fudge, and pies, during the fall holiday season. The nuts’ nutritional profile leads to uses in other foods, such as salads, fish, pork, chicken, vegetables and pasta dishes.
Nutritionally similar to the milder-tasting English walnut, the black walnut kernel is high in unsaturated fat and protein. An analysis of nut oil from five named J. nigra cultivars (Ogden, Sparrow, Baugh, Carter and Thomas) showed that the most prevalent fatty acid in J. nigra oil is linoleic acid (27.80–33.34 g/100g dry kernel), followed (in the same units) by oleic acid (14.52–24.40), linolenic acid (1.61–3.23), palmitic acid (1.61–2.15), and stearic acid (1.07–1.69).[2] The oil from the cultivar Carter had the highest mol percentage of linoleate (61.6), linolenate (5.97%), and palmitate (3.98%); the oil from the cultivar Baugh had the highest mol percentage of oleate (42.7%); the oil from the cultivar Ogden has the highest mol percentage of stearate (2.98%).
Tapped in spring, the tree yields a sweet sap that can be drunk or concentrated into syrup or sugar
Nut processing by hand
The extraction of the kernel from the fruit of the black walnut is difficult. The thick hard shell is tightly bound by tall ridges to a thick husk. The husk is best removed when green as the nuts taste better if it is removed then.[citation needed] Rolling the nut underfoot on a hard surface such as a driveway is a common method; commercial huskers use a car tire rotating against a metal mesh. Some take a thick plywood board and drill a nut sized hole in it (from one to two inches in diameter) and smash the nut through using a hammer. The nut goes through and the husk remains behind.
While the flavor of the Juglans nigra kernel is prized, the difficulty in preparing it may account for the wider popularity and availability of the Persian walnut.
Dye
Black walnut drupes contain juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), plumbagin (yellow quinone pigments), and tannin.[3] The brownish-black dye was used by early settlers to dye hair.[4] Extracts of the outer, soft part of the drupe are still used as a natural dye for handicrafts.[5] The tannins present in walnuts act as a mordant, aiding in the dyeing process,[6][7] and are usable as a dark ink or wood stain
Wood
Black walnut is highly prized for its dark-colored, true heartwood. It is heavy and strong, yet easily split and worked. Walnut wood has historically been used for gunstocks, furniture, flooring, paddles, coffins, and a variety of other wood products. Due to its value, forestry officials often are called on to track down walnut poachers; in 2004, DNA testing was used to solve one such poaching case, involving a 55 foot (16m) tree worth US,500. Black walnut has a density of 660 kg per cubic meter (41.2 lb/cubic foot),[9] which makes it less dense than oak.
Pests
Maggots (larvae of Rhagoletis completa and Rhagoletis suavis) in the husk are common, though more a nuisance than a serious problem for amateurs, who may simply remove the affected husk as soon as infestation is noticed. The maggots develop entirely within the husk, thus the quality of the nutmeat is not affected.[10] However, infestations of maggots are undesirable because they make the husk difficult to remove and are unsightly. Maggots can be serious for commercial walnut growers, who tend to use chemical treatments to prevent damage to the crop.[11] Some organic controls also exist, such as removing and disposing of infested nuts.[12]
The walnut curculio (Conotrachelus retentus) grows to 5 mm long as an adult. The adult sucks plant juices through a snout. The eggs are laid in fruits in the spring and summer. Many nuts are lost due to damage from the larvae, which burrow through the nut shell.[13]
Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) larvae eat walnut kernels, as well as apple and pear seeds.[14]
A disease complex known as thousand cankers disease has been threatening black walnut in several western states.[15] This disease has recently been discovered in Tennessee, and could potentially have devastating effects on the species in the eastern United States
Toxicity
The roots, nut husks, and leaves secrete a substance into the soil called juglone that is a respiratory inhibitor to some plants. A number of other plants (most notably white birch) are also poisoned by juglone, and should not be planted in close proximity to a black walnut. The plant can cause contact dermatitis in humans. [17] Horses are susceptible to laminitis from exposure to black walnut wood in bedding
Big tree
The largest known living black walnut tree is on Sauvie Island, Oregon.
The national champion black walnut is on a residential property in Sauvie Island, Oregon. It is 8 feet 7 inches (2.62 m) diameter at breast height and 112 feet (34 m) tall, with a crown spread of 144 feet (44 m
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Immature fruits of Queen of Fruits, Garcinia mangostana…Những trái Măng Cụt non …
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Chụp hình ở huyện Củ Chi, thành phố Hồ chí Minh, miền Nam Vietnam.
Taken in Củ Chi district, Hồ chí Minh city, South Vietnam.
Vietnamese named : Măng Cụt
Common names : Queen of Fruits ,
Scientist name : Garcinia mangostana L.
Synonyms :
Family : Clusiaceae . Họ Bứa
Kingdom:Plantae
(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Eudicots
(unranked):Rosids
Order:Malpighiales
Genus:Garcinia
Species:G. mangostana
Links :
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Giá Trị Dinh Dưỡng và Dược Tính Của Măng Cụt
Dược Sĩ Trần Việt Hưng
Măng cụt, một trái cây nhiệt đới đã được giới tiêu-thụ Âu-Mỹ đánh giá là một trong những trái cây ngon nhất, Jacobus Bontius đã gọi măng cụt là ‘Hoàng hậu của các loại trái cây (Queen of fruits)’, mà nếu có dịp gặp được quả tươi thì hãy thử ngay, đừng chần chừ. Bên cạnh gíá trị dinh dưỡng cao, măng cụt còn là một nguồn cung cấp dược liệu để trị bệnh khá độc đáo, những nghiên cứu mới đã nhằm vào khả năng trị ung thư của cây.
I/ Tên khoa học và các tên thông thường:
Garcinia mangostana thuộc họ thực vật Clusiaceae (Guttifereae)
Các tên gọi khác: Mangosteen (Anh-Mỹ), Mangoustan (Pháp), Sơn Trúc Tử (Trung Hoa), Mangkhut (Thái lan)
Giống Garcinia được đặt tên để ghi nhớ nhà thực vật học Laurence Garcia, người đã sưu tập các mẫu cây cỏ và sống tại Ấn Độ vào thế kỷ 18. Mangostana và tên Anh ngữ mangosteen đều phát xuất từ tên Mã lai của cây: mangustan.
II/ Đặc tính thực vật:
Măng cụt có nguồn gốc từ Mã Lai và Indonesia, được trồng từ hàng chục thế kỷ, cây đã được Thuyền Trưởng Cook mô tả khá chi tiết từ năm 1770, và được đưa đến Sri Lanka vào năm 1800, được trồng tại Anh trong các nhà kiếng (green house) từ 1855, sau đó đưa đến West Indies từ giữa thế kỷ 19. Đây là một loại cây đòi hỏi điều kiện thổ nhưỡng khắt khe cần khí hậu nóng và ẩm, cây tăng trưởng rất chậm, sau 2-3 năm cây chỉ cao đến đầu gối, chỉ bắt đầu cho quả sau 10-15 năm.. Cây đã được các nhà truyền giáo du nhập vào Nam Việt Nam từ lâu, trồng nhiều nhất tại Lái Thiêu, Thủ Dầu Một. Việt Nam đã có lúc là nơi có những vườn măng cụt lớn nhất thế giới, với những vườn rộng hàng chục mẫu, có hàng ngàn cây, mỗi cây cho được từ 700 đến 900 quả. Cây hiện được trồng nhiều tại Thái Lan, Kampuchea, Myanmar (Miến điện), Sri Lanka và Philippines.
Hiện có khoảng 100 loài khác nhau được nuôi trồng.
Măng cụt thuộc loại cây to, trung bình 7-12 m nhưng có thể cao đến 20- 25 m, thân có vỏ màu nâu đen xậm, có nhựa (resin) màu vàng. Lá dày và cứng, bóng, mọc đối, mặt trên của lá có màu xậm hơn mặt dưới, hình thuôn dài 15-25 cm, rộng 6-11 cm, cuống dài 1.2-2.5 cm. Hoa đa tính thường là hoa cái và hoa lưỡng tính. Hoa mọc đơn độc hay từng đôi. Hoa loại lưỡng tính màu trắng hay hồng nhạt, có 4 lá đài và 4 cánh hoa, có 16-17 nhị và bầu noãn có 5-8 ô. Quả hình cầu tròn, đường kính chừng 4-7 cm, có mang đài hoa còn tồn tại; vỏ quả màu đỏ nâu, dai và xốp. Quả chứa 5-8 hạt: quanh hạt có lớp áo bọc màu trắng có vị ngọt, thơm và khá ngon. Cây trổ hoa vào tháng 2-5, ra quả trong các tháng 5-8.
(giống Garcinia còn gồm một số cây tương cận, đa số mọc trong vùng Đông Ấn = West Indies, trong đó có thể kể Garcinia cambogia hay Bứa, Garcinia cowa cung cấp quả Cowa-Mangosteen lớn hơn và có khía màu vàng apricot, vị chua; Garcinia indica hay Cocum = Conca cho quả chua, áo hạt màu tím, dùng làm giấm, hạt ép lấy dầu.)
III/ Thành phần dinh dưỡng:
100 gram phần ăn được (quả tươi) chứa
- Calories 60-63
- Chất đạm 0.5-0.60 g
- Chất béo 0.1-0.60 g
- Chất carbohydrates 10-14.7 g
- Chất sơ 5.0-5.10 g
- Calcium 0.01- 8 mg
- Sắt 0.20- 0.80 mg
- Phosphorus 0.02- 12.0 mg
- Thiamine (B1) 0.03 mg
- Vitamin C 1-2 mg
(ngoài ra còn có Potassium, Niacin…)
Quả măng cụt thường được ăn tươi, khía quanh quả, bẻ đôi theo đường khía, để ăn các múi trắng, bỏ hột trong, có vị ngọt, mọng nước. Tại đảo Sulu có giống măng cụt vị hơi chua, được dùng làm mứt trộn với đường thô. Tại Mã Lai, quả chưa chín hẳn được dùng làm mứt halwa manggis.
Măng cụt rất mau hư, có thể giữ 2-3 ngày ở nhiệt độ bình thường, khoảng 1 tuần trong tủ lạnh nhưng không thể giữ trong tủ đông lạnh (freezer)
IV/ Thành phần hóa học:
Thành phần hóa học thay đổi tùy theo bộ phận:
- Lá chứa nhiều xanthones loại di và tri hydroxy-methoxy (methyl, butyl…)
- Gỗ thân có maclurin, 1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy xanthone và xanthone-glucosides.
- Vỏ quả: có chrysanthemin, tannins (7-13 %), các hợp chất đắng loại xanthones như mangostin (gồm cả 3-isomangostin, 3-isomangostin hydrate, 1-iso mangostin, alpha và beta mangostin, gamma-mangostin, nor-mangostin…), garcinones A, B, C; kolanone; các xanthones như BR-xanthone-A, -B.
- Áo hạt: calabaxanthone, demethyl calabaxanthone, mangostin.
- Nhựa: chứa xanthones có những hoạt tính kháng sinh, chống sưng và kháng nấm, đặc biệt là một hợp chất loại biphenyl geranylated (Natural Products Tháng 4-2005)
V/ Dược tính:
1- Y dược dân gian:
- Tại Thái Lan: Vỏ măng cụt khô được dùng để trị tiêu chảy, chữa vết thương. Để trị tiêu chảy, vỏ khô được nấu với nước vôi, chắt lấy nước để uống.
- Tại Việt Nam: Vỏ quả được sắc dùng uống để trị tiêu chảy, kiết lỵ; Nước sắc được dùng để rửa vệ sinh phụ nữ.
- Tại Ấn Độ: Cây được gọi là mangustan, vỏ để trị tiêu chảy. Lá nấu để xúc miệng, trị lở trong miệng.
2- Các nghiên cứu dược học về măng cụt: (theo Thai Medicinal Plants)
- Tác dụng ức nén hệ thần kinh trung ương: Mangostin, một hợp chất loại xanthone và các chất chuyển hóa tạo ra nhưng phản ứng ức chế thần kinh trung ương gây các triệu chứng như sụp mi mắt (ptosis), dịu đau, giảm hoạt động của thần kinh vận động, tăng cường hoạt tính gây ngủ và gây mê của pentobarbital.
- Tác dụng trên hệ tim mạch: Mangostin-3, 6-di-O-glucoside tạo ra các hiệu ứng rõ rệt trên hệ tim mạch của ếch và chó: Gây kích thích cơ tim, tăng huyết áp nơi thú vật thử nghiệm. Cả hai tác dụng này đều bị ức chế một phần bởi propranolol.
- Tác dụng chống sưng, viêm: Mangostin, 1-isomanfostin và mangos tin triacetate có những hoạt tính chống sưng khi dùng chích qua màng phúc mô hay khi cho uống nơi chuột bị gây phù chân bằng carrageenan, hay bằng cấy cục bông gòn dưới da..Các chất này không có hiệu ứng ổn định màng tế bào. Các hoạt tính chống viêm này được giải thích là do ở ức chế hoạt động của men IKK (inhibitor kappaB kinase) do đó ngăn được sự chuyển mã (transcription) gen COX-2 và gây giảm bài tiết PGE(2) là tác nhân chính trong tiến trình gây sưng. (Molecular Pharmacology Tháng 9-2004). Gamma-mangostin, một xanthone loại tetraoxygenated diprenylated, có hoạt tính ức chế tương tranh hoạt động của cả COX-1 lẫn COX-2 ở liều IC50=0.8 và 2 micro M (Biochemistry Pharmacology Tháng 1/2002)
- Tác dụng chống ung loét bao tử: Mangostin có hoạt tính chống ung loét khi thử trên chuột.
- Hoạt tính kháng sinh: Có nhiều nghiên cứu ghi nhận khả năng kháng sinh của vỏ măng cụt. Các vi khuẩn thử nghiệm thuộc nhóm gây kiết lỵ như shigella dysenteriae, sh. flexneri, sh. sonnei và sh. boydii hoặc thuộc nhóm gây tiêu chảy như escherichia coli, streptococcus feacalis, vibryo cholerae. Hỗn hợp thô 5 loại xanthones, trích từ vỏ măng cụt (mangostin, beta-mangostin, gamma-mangostin, gartanin và 8-deoxygartanin) có tác dụng ức chế sự tăng trưởng của s.aureus.
Mangostin ức chế S. aureus (cả chủng bình thường lẫn chủng kháng penicillin ở nồng độ tối thiểu (MIC=Minimal inhibitory concentration là 7.8 mg/ml. Alpha, beta-mangostin và Garcinone B có tác dụng ức chế sự tăng trưởng của Mycobacterium tuberculosis ở nồng độ MIC= 6.25 mcg/ml. Dịch chiết vỏ măng cụt bằng ethanol có tiềm năng ức chế được protease của HIV-1. Hoạt tính này được xác định là do mangostin (IC50=5.12 +/- 0.41 microM) và gamma-mangostin (IC50= 4.81 +/- 0.32 microM) (Planta Medica Tháng 8-1996)
- Hoạt tính kháng nấm: Mangostin kháng được trichophyton menta grophytes, microsporum gypseum và epidermophyton floccosum ở nồng độ 1 mg/ml nhưng không tác dụng trên candida albicans. Nghiên cứu tại Trung Tâm Nghiên Cứu Nông Nghiệp Madras (Ấn độ) ghi nhận xanthones trích từ vỏ măng cụt có hoạt tính chống các loại nấm gây bệnh fusarium oxysporum vasinfectum, alternaria tenuis và dreschlera oryzae.
- Tác dụng diệt cá: Dịch chiết bằng nước vỏ măng cụt cho thấy có tác dụng diệt cá rô phi (Tilapia = Oreochromis niloticus) ở nồng độ 1,000 ppm.
- Hoạt tính chống ung thư: Có khá nhiều nghiên cứu về tác dụng của các xanthone trích từ vỏ măng cụt trên các tế bào ung thư:
- Nghiên cứu tại Veterans General Hospital, Đài Bắc (Trung Hoa Dân quốc) ghi nhận Garcinone E, một chất chuyển hóa xanthone trích từ vỏ măng cụt có hoạt tính diệt bào trên tế bào ung thư gan loại hepatocellular carcinomas, ung thư ruột và ung thư phổi (Planta Medica Số 11-2002).
- Nghiên cứu tại Bộ môn Sinh học về Dược Phân tử tại ĐH Dược Tohoku (Nhật) ghi nhận các xanthones trong vỏ măng cụt một số hoạt tính gây apoptosis (tiến trình tế bào được mã hóa để tự hủy diệt) trên các tế bào ung thư loại pheochromocytoma nơi chuột: Alpha-mangostin được cho là có khả năng ức chế được men Ca(2+)-ATPase là men gây ra apoptosis qua các lộ trình nơi mitochondria (Journal of Pharmacology Sciences (Tháng 5/2004)
- Nghiên cứu tại Bộ Môn Vi trùng Học, ĐH Dược Khoa, Viện ĐH Mahidol (Bangkok-Thai Lan) cho thấy dịch chiết vỏ măng cụt bằng methanol có hoạt tính khá mạnh ngăn chặn được sự phát triển, có tiềm lực oxy hóa mạnh, và gây apoptosis nơi tế bào ung thư vú của người (loại SKBR3) (Jourmnal of Ethnopharmacology Tháng 1/2004)
- Nghiên cứu tại Trường Y Khoa, ĐH Ryukyus (Okinawa-Nhật) cho thấy alpha-mangostin thô có tiềm lực ức chế được sự tăng trưởng, phát triển của các tế bào ung thư ruột loại ‘preneoplastic’ nơi chuột thử nghiệm (Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Tháng 10/2004)
- Nghiên cứu tại Viện Kỹ thuật Sinh Học Gifu (Nhật) ghi nhận càc xanthone trích từ vỏ măng cụt, nhất là alpha-mangostin, có tác dụng ức chế được sự tăng trưởng của tế bào ung thư máu nơi người (dòng tế bào ung thư HL60). Liều ức chế hoàn toàn là 10 microM (Journal of Natural Products Tháng 8/2003)
Tài liệu sử dụng:
•Thai Medicinal Plants (Norman Farnsworth & Nunthavan Buniapra phatsara).
•Từ điển Cây thuốc Việ Nam (Võ văn Chi)
•Whole Foods Companion (Dianne Onstad)
•The Oxford Companion to Food (Alain Davidson)
**** QUY TRÌNH, KỶ THUẬT TRỒNG VÀ CHĂM SÓC VÀ THU HOẠCH CÂY MĂNG CỤT
**** KỶ THUẬT TRỒNG CÂY MĂNG CỤT :
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One of the most praised of tropical fruits, and certainly the most esteemed fruit in the family Guttiferae, the mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana L., is almost universally known or heard of by this name. There are numerous variations in nomenclature: among Spanish-speaking people, it is called mangostan; to the French, it is mangostanier, mangoustanier, mangouste or mangostier; in Portuguese, it is mangostao, mangosta or mangusta; in Dutch, it is manggis or manggistan; in Vietnamese, mang cut; in Malaya, it may be referred to in any of these languages or by the local terms, mesetor, semetah, or sementah; in the Philippines, it is mangis or mangostan. Throughout the Malay Archipelago, there are many different spellings of names similar to most of the above.
Plate XLI: MANGOSTEEN, Garcinia mangostana—Painted by Dr. M.J. Dijkman Description
The mangosteen tree is very slow-growing, erect, with a pyramidal crown; attains 20 to 82 ft (6-25 m) in height, has dark-brown or nearly black, flaking bark, the inner bark containing much yellow, gummy, bitter latex. The evergreen, opposite, short-stalked leaves are ovate-oblong or elliptic, leathery and thick, dark-green, slightly glossy above, yellowish-green and dull beneath; 3 1/2 to 10 in (9-25 cm) long, 1 3/4 to 4 in (4.5-10 cm) wide, with conspicuous, pale midrib. New leaves are rosy. Flowers, 1 1/2 to 2 in (4-5 cm) wide and fleshy, may be male or hermaphrodite on the same tree. The former are in clusters of 3-9 at the branch tips; there are 4 sepals and 4 ovate, thick, fleshy petals, green with red spots on the outside, yellowish-red inside, and many stamens though the aborted anthers bear no pollen. The hermaphrodite are borne singly or in pairs at the tips of young branchlets; their petals may be yellowish-green edged with red or mostly red, and are quickly shed.
The fruit, capped by the prominent calyx at the stem end and with 4 to 8 triangular, flat remnants of the stigma in a rosette at the apex, is round, dark-purple to red-purple and smooth externally; 1 1/3 to 3 in (3.4-7.5 cm) in diameter. The rind is 1/4 to 3/8 in (6-10 mm) thick, red in cross-section, purplish-white on the inside. It contains bitter yellow latex and a purple, staining juice. There are 4 to 8 triangular segments of snow-white, juicy, soft flesh (actually the arils of the seeds). The fruit may be seedless or have 1 to 5 fully developed seeds, ovoid-oblong, somewhat flattened, 1 in (2.5 cm) long and 5/8 in (1.6 cm) wide, that cling to the flesh. The flesh is slightly acid and mild to distinctly acid in flavor and is acclaimed as exquisitely luscious and delicious.
Origin and Distribution
The place of origin of the mangosteen is unknown but is believed to be the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas; still, there are wild trees in the forests of Kemaman, Malaya. Corner suggests that the tree may have been first domesticated in Thailand, or Burma. It is much cultivated in Thailand–where there were 9,700 acres (4,000 ha) in 1965–also in Kampuchea, southern Vietnam and Burma, throughout Malaya and Singapore. The tree was planted in Ceylon about 1800 and in India in 1881. There it succeeds in 4 limited areas–the Nilgiri Hills, the Tinnevelly district of southern Madras, the Kanya-kumani district at the southernmost tip of the Madras peninsula, and in Kerala State in southwestern India. The tree is fairly common only in the provinces of Mindanao and Sulu (or Jolo) in the Philippines. It is rare in Queensland, where it has been tried many times since 1854, and poorly represented in tropical Africa (Zanzibar, Ghana, Gabon and Liberia). There were fruiting trees in greenhouses in England in 1855. The mangosteen was introduced into Trinidad from the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew, England, between 1850 and 1860 and the first fruit was borne in 1875. It reached the Panama Canal Zone and Puerto Rico in 1903 but there are only a few trees in these areas, in Jamaica, Dominica and Cuba, and some scattered around other parts of the West Indies. The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Java in 1906 (S.P.I. #17146). A large test block of productive trees has been maintained at the Lancetilla Experimental Station at Tela, Honduras, for many years. Quite a few trees distributed by the United Fruit Company long ago have done well on the Atlantic coast of Guatemala. In 1924, Dr. Wilson Popenoe saw the mangosteen growing at one site in Ecuador. In 1939, 15,000 seeds were distributed by the Canal Zone Experiment Gardens to many areas of tropical America. It is probable that only a relatively few seedlings survived. It is known that many die during the first year. Dr. Victor Patiño has observed flourishing mangosteen trees at the site of an old mining settlement in Mariquita, Colombia, in the Magdalena Valley and the fruits are sold on local markets. Dierberger Agricola Ltda., of Sao Paulo, included the mangosteen in their nursery catalog in 1949.
Despite early trials in Hawaii, the tree has not become well acclimatized and is still rare in those islands. Neither has it been successful in California. It encounters very unfavorable soil and climate in Florida. Some plants have been grown for a time in containers in greenhouses. One tree in a very protected coastal location and special soil lived to produce a single fruit and then succumbed to winter cold.
Despite the oft-repeated Old World enthusiasm for this fruit, it is not always viewed as worth the trouble to produce. In Jamaica, it is regarded as nice but overrated; not comparable to a good field-ripe pineapple or a choice mango.
Varieties
According to Corner, the fruit from seedling trees is fairly uniform; only one distinct variation is known and that is in the Sulu Islands. The fruit is larger, the rind thicker than normal, and the flesh more acid; the flavor more pronounced. In North Borneo, a seemingly wild form has only 4 carpels, each containing a fully-developed seed, and this is probably not unique.
Climate
The mangosteen is ultra-tropical. It cannot tolerate temperatures below 40º F (4.44º C), nor above 100º F (37.78º C). Nursery seedlings are killed at 45º F (7.22º C).
It is limited in Malaya to elevations below 1,500 ft (450 m). In Madras it grows from 250 to 5,000 ft (76-1,500 m) above sea-level. Attempts to establish it north of 200 latitude have all failed.
It ordinarily requires high atmospheric humidity and an annual rainfall of at least 50 in (127 cm), and no long periods of drought. In Dominica, mangosteens growing in an area having 80 in (200 cm) of rain yearly required special care, but those in another locality with 105 in (255 cm) and soil with better moisture- holding capacity, flourished.
Soil
The tree is not adapted to limestone and does best in deep, rich organic soil, especially sandy loam or laterite. In India, the most productive specimens are on clay containing much coarse material and a little silt. Sandy alluvial soils are unsuitable and sand low in humus contributes to low yields. The tree needs good drainage and the water table ought to be about 6 ft (1.8 m) below ground level. However, in the Canal Zone, productive mangosteen groves have been established where it is too wet for other fruit trees–in swamps requiring drainage ditches between rows and in situations where the roots were bathed with flowing water most of the year, in spite of the fact that standing water in nursery beds will kill seedlings. The mangosteen must be sheltered from strong winds and salt spray, as well as saline soil or water.
Propagation
Technically, the so-called "seeds" are not true seeds but adventitious embryos, or hypocotyl tubercles, inasmuch as there has been no sexual fertilization. When growth begins, a shoot emerges from one end of the seed and a root from the other end. But this root is short-lived and is replaced by roots which develop at the base of the shoot. The process of reproduction being vegetative, there is naturally little variation in the resulting trees and their fruits. Some of the seeds are polyembryonic, producing more than one shoot. The individual nucellar embryos can be separated, if desired, before planting.
Inasmuch as the percentage of germination is directly related to the weight of the seed, only plump, fully developed seeds should be chosen for planting. Even these will lose viability in 5 days after removal from the fruit, though they are viable for 3 to 5 weeks in the fruit. Seeds packed in lightly dampened peat moss, sphagnum moss or coconut fiber in airtight containers have remained viable for 3 months. Only 22% germination has been realized in seeds packed in ground charcoal for 15 days. Soaking in water for 24 hours expedites and enhances the rate of germination. Generally, sprouting occurs in 20 to 22 days and is complete in 43 days.
Because of the long, delicate taproot and poor lateral root development, transplanting is notoriously difficult. It must not be attempted after the plants reach 2 ft (60 cm). At that time the depth of the taproot may exceed that height. There is greater seedling survival if seeds are planted directly in the nursery row than if first grown in containers and then transplanted to the nursery. The nursery soil should be 3 ft (1 m) deep, at least. The young plants take 2 years or more to reach a height of 12 in (30 cm), when they can be taken up with a deep ball of earth and set out. Fruiting may take place in 7 to 9 years from planting but usually not for 10 or even 20 years.
Conventional vegetative propagation of the mangosteen is difficult. Various methods of grafting have failed. Cuttings and air-layers, with or without growth-promoting chemicals, usually fail to root or result in deformed, short-lived plants. Inarching on different rootstocks has appeared promising at first but later incompatibility has been evident with all except G. xanthochymus Hook. f. (G tinctoria Dunn.) or G. lateriflora Bl., now commonly employed in the Philippines.
In Florida, approach-grafting has succeeded only by planting a seed of G. xanthochymus about 1 1/4 in (3 cm) from the base of a mangosteen seedling in a container and, when the stem of the G. xanthochymus seedling has become 1/8 in (3 mm) thick, joining it onto the 3/16 to 1/4 in (5-6 mm) thick stem of the mangosteen at a point about 4 in (10 cm) above the soil. When the graft has healed, the G. xanthochymus seedling is beheaded. The mangosteen will make good progress having both root systems to grow on, while the G. xanthochymus rootstock will develop very little.
Culture
A spacing of 35 to 40 ft (10.7-12 m) is recommended. Planting is preferably done at the beginning of the rainy season. Pits 4 x 4 x 4 1/2 ft (1.2 x l.2 x l.3 m) are prepared at least 30 days in advance, enriched with organic matter and topsoil and left to weather. The young tree is put in place very carefully so as not to injure the root and given a heavy watering. Partial shading with palm fronds or by other means should be maintained for 3 to 5 years. Indian growers give each tree regular feeding with well-rotted manure–100 to 200 lbs (45-90 kg)–and peanut meal–10 to 15 lbs (4.5-6.8 kg) total, per year.
Some of the most fruitful mangosteen trees are growing on the banks of streams, lakes, ponds or canals where the roots are almost constantly wet. However, dry weather just before blooming time and during flowering induces a good fruit-set. Where a moist planting site is not available, irrigation ditches should be dug to make it possible to maintain an adequate water supply and the trees are irrigated almost daily during the dry season.
In Malaya and Ceylon, it is a common practice to spread a mulch of coconut husks or fronds to retain moisture. A 16-in (40-cm) mulch of grass restored trees that had begun dehydrating in Liberia. It has been suggested that small inner branches be pruned from old, unproductive trees to stimulate bearing. In Thailand, the tree is said to take 12 to 20 years to fruit. In Panama and Puerto Rico trees grown from large seed and given good culture have borne in six years.
Season and Harvesting
At low altitudes in Ceylon the fruit ripens from May to July; at higher elevations, in July and August or August and September. In India, there are 2 distinct fruiting seasons, one in the monsoon period (July-October) and another from April through June. Puerto Rican trees in full sun fruit in July and August; shaded trees, in November and December.
Cropping is irregular and the yield varies from tree to tree and from season to season. The first crop may be 200 to 300 fruits. Average yield of a full-grown tree is about 500 fruits. The yield steadily increases up to the 30th year of bearing when crops of 1,000 to 2,000 fruits may be obtained. In Madras, individual trees between the ages of 20 and 45 years have borne 2,000 to 3,000 fruits. Productivity gradually declines thereafter, though the tree will still be fruiting at 100 years of age.
Ripeness is gauged by the full development of color and slight softening. Picking may be done when the fruits are slightly underripe but they must be fully mature (developed) or they will not ripen after picking. The fruits must be harvested by hand from ladders or by means of a cutting pole and not be allowed to fall.
Keeping Quality
In dry, warm, closed storage, mangosteens can be held 20 to 25 days. Longer periods cause the outer skin to toughen and the rind to become rubbery; later, the rind hardens and becomes difficult to open and the flesh turns dry.
Ripe mangosteens keep well for 3 to 4 weeks in storage at 40º to 55º F (4.44º-12.78º C). Trials in India have shown that optimum conditions for cold storage are temperatures of 39º to 42º F (3.89º-5.56º C) and relative humidity of 85 to 90%, which maintain quality for 49 days. It is recommended that the fruits be wrapped in tissue paper and packed 25-to-the-box in light wooden crates with excelsior padding. Fruits picked slightly unripe have been shipped from Burma to the United Kingdom at 50º to 55º F (10º-12.78º C). From 1927 to 1929, trial shipments were made from Java to Holland at 37.4º F (approximately 2.38º C) and the fruits kept in good condition for 24 days.
Pests and Diseases
Few pests have been reported. A leaf-eating caterpillar in India may perhaps be the same as that which attacks new shoots in the Philippines and which has been identified as Orgyra sp. of the tussock moth family, Lymantridae. A small ant, Myrnelachista ramulorum, in Puerto Rico, colonizes the tree, tunnels into the trunk and branches, and damages the new growth. Mites sometimes deface the fruits with small bites and scratches. Fully ripe fruits are attacked by monkeys, bats and rats in Asia.
In Puerto Rico, thread blight caused by the fungus, Pellicularia koleroga, is often seen on branchlets, foliage and fruits of trees in shaded, humid areas. The fruits may become coated with webbing and ruined. In Malaya, the fungus, Zignoella garcineae, gives rise to "canker"–tuberous growths on the branches, causing a fatal dying-back of foliage, branches and eventually the entire tree. Breakdown in storage is caused by the fungi Diplodia gossypina, Pestalotia sp., Phomopsis sp., Gloeosporium sp., and Rhizopus nigricans.
A major physiological problem called "gamboge" is evidenced by the oozing of latex onto the outer surface of the fruits and on the branches during periods of heavy and continuous rains. It does not affect eating quality. Fruit-cracking may occur because of excessive absorption of moisture. In cracked fruits the flesh will be swollen and mushy. Bruising caused by the force of storms may be an important factor in both of these abnormalities. Fruits exposed to strong sun may also exude latex. Mangosteens produced in Honduras often have crystal-like "stones" in the flesh and they may render the fruit completely inedible.
Food Uses
To select the best table fruits, choose those with the highest number of stigma lobes at the apex, for these have the highest number of fleshy segments and accordingly the fewest seeds. The numbers always correspond. Mangosteens are usually eaten fresh as dessert. One need only hold the fruit with the stem-end downward, take a sharp knife and cut around the middle completely through the rind, and lift off the top half, which leaves the fleshy segments exposed in the colorful "cup"–the bottom half of the rind. The segments are lifted out by fork.
The fleshy segments are sometimes canned, but they are said to lose their delicate flavor in canning, especially if pasteurized for as much as 10 minutes. Tests have shown that it is best to use a 40% sirup and sterilize for only 5 minutes. The more acid fruits are best for preserving. To make jam, in Malaya, seedless segments are boiled with an equal amount of sugar and a few cloves for 15 to 20 minutes and then put into glass jars. In the Philippines, a preserve is made by simply boiling the segments in brown sugar, and the seeds may be included to enrich the flavor.
The seeds are sometimes eaten alone after boiling or roasting.
The rind is rich in pectin. After treatment with 6% sodium chloride to eliminate astringency, the rind is made into a purplish jelly.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion*
Calories60-63
Moisture80.2-84.9 g
Protein0.50-0.60 g
Fat0.1-0.6 g
Total Carbohydrates14.3-15.6 g
Total Sugars16.42-16.82 g
(sucrose, glucose and fructose)
Fiber5.0-5.1 g
Ash0.2-0.23 g
Calcium0.01-8.0 mg
Phosphorus0.02-12.0 mg
Iron0.20-0.80 mg
Thiamine0.03 mg
Ascorbic Acid1.0-2.0 mg
*Minimum/maximum values from analyses made in the Philippines and Washington, D.C.
Phytin (an organic phosphorus compound) constitutes up to 0.68% on a dry-weight basis. The flesh amounts to 31% of the whole fruit.
Other Uses
Mangosteen twigs are used as chewsticks in Ghana. The fruit rind contains 7 to 14% catechin tannin and rosin, and is used for tanning leather in China. It also yields a black dye.
Wood: In Thailand, all non-bearing trees are felled, so the wood is available but usually only in small dimensions. It is dark-brown, heavy, almost sinks in water, and is moderately durable. It has been used to make handles for spears, also rice pounders, and is employed in construction and cabinetwork.
Medicinal Uses: Dried fruits are shipped from Singapore to Calcutta and to China for medicinal use. The sliced and dried rind is powdered and administered to overcome dysentery. Made into an ointment, it is applied on eczema and other skin disorders. The rind decoction is taken to relieve diarrhea and cystitis, gonorrhea and gleet and is applied externally as an astringent lotion. A portion of the rind is steeped in water overnight and the infusion given as a remedy for chronic diarrhea in adults and children. Filipinos employ a decoction of the leaves and bark as a febrifuge and to treat thrush, diarrhea, dysentery and urinary disorders. In Malaya, an infusion of the leaves, combined with unripe banana and a little benzoin is applied to the wound of circumcision. A root decoction is taken to regulate menstruation. A bark extract called "amibiasine", has been marketed for the treatment of amoebic dysentery.
The rind of partially ripe fruits yields a polyhydroxy-xanthone derivative termed mangostin, also ß-mangostin. That of fully ripe fruits contains the xanthones, gartanin, 8-disoxygartanin, and normangostin. A derivative of mangostin, mangostin-e, 6-di-O-glucoside, is a central nervous system depressant and causes a rise in blood pressure.
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A fruit of Garcia mangostana , Queen of Fruits …Một trái Măng Cụt …
Image by
Chụp hình ở huyện Củ Chi, thành phố Hồ chí Minh, miền Nam Vietnam.
Taken in Củ Chi district, Hồ chí Minh city, South Vietnam.
Vietnamese named : Măng Cụt
Common names : Queen of Fruits ,
Scientist name : Garcinia mangostana L.
Synonyms :
Family : Clusiaceae . Họ Bứa
Kingdom:Plantae
(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Eudicots
(unranked):Rosids
Order:Malpighiales
Genus:Garcinia
Species:G. mangostana
Links :
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Giá Trị Dinh Dưỡng và Dược Tính Của Măng Cụt
Dược Sĩ Trần Việt Hưng
Măng cụt, một trái cây nhiệt đới đã được giới tiêu-thụ Âu-Mỹ đánh giá là một trong những trái cây ngon nhất, Jacobus Bontius đã gọi măng cụt là ‘Hoàng hậu của các loại trái cây (Queen of fruits)’, mà nếu có dịp gặp được quả tươi thì hãy thử ngay, đừng chần chừ. Bên cạnh gíá trị dinh dưỡng cao, măng cụt còn là một nguồn cung cấp dược liệu để trị bệnh khá độc đáo, những nghiên cứu mới đã nhằm vào khả năng trị ung thư của cây.
I/ Tên khoa học và các tên thông thường:
Garcinia mangostana thuộc họ thực vật Clusiaceae (Guttifereae)
Các tên gọi khác: Mangosteen (Anh-Mỹ), Mangoustan (Pháp), Sơn Trúc Tử (Trung Hoa), Mangkhut (Thái lan)
Giống Garcinia được đặt tên để ghi nhớ nhà thực vật học Laurence Garcia, người đã sưu tập các mẫu cây cỏ và sống tại Ấn Độ vào thế kỷ 18. Mangostana và tên Anh ngữ mangosteen đều phát xuất từ tên Mã lai của cây: mangustan.
II/ Đặc tính thực vật:
Măng cụt có nguồn gốc từ Mã Lai và Indonesia, được trồng từ hàng chục thế kỷ, cây đã được Thuyền Trưởng Cook mô tả khá chi tiết từ năm 1770, và được đưa đến Sri Lanka vào năm 1800, được trồng tại Anh trong các nhà kiếng (green house) từ 1855, sau đó đưa đến West Indies từ giữa thế kỷ 19. Đây là một loại cây đòi hỏi điều kiện thổ nhưỡng khắt khe cần khí hậu nóng và ẩm, cây tăng trưởng rất chậm, sau 2-3 năm cây chỉ cao đến đầu gối, chỉ bắt đầu cho quả sau 10-15 năm.. Cây đã được các nhà truyền giáo du nhập vào Nam Việt Nam từ lâu, trồng nhiều nhất tại Lái Thiêu, Thủ Dầu Một. Việt Nam đã có lúc là nơi có những vườn măng cụt lớn nhất thế giới, với những vườn rộng hàng chục mẫu, có hàng ngàn cây, mỗi cây cho được từ 700 đến 900 quả. Cây hiện được trồng nhiều tại Thái Lan, Kampuchea, Myanmar (Miến điện), Sri Lanka và Philippines.
Hiện có khoảng 100 loài khác nhau được nuôi trồng.
Măng cụt thuộc loại cây to, trung bình 7-12 m nhưng có thể cao đến 20- 25 m, thân có vỏ màu nâu đen xậm, có nhựa (resin) màu vàng. Lá dày và cứng, bóng, mọc đối, mặt trên của lá có màu xậm hơn mặt dưới, hình thuôn dài 15-25 cm, rộng 6-11 cm, cuống dài 1.2-2.5 cm. Hoa đa tính thường là hoa cái và hoa lưỡng tính. Hoa mọc đơn độc hay từng đôi. Hoa loại lưỡng tính màu trắng hay hồng nhạt, có 4 lá đài và 4 cánh hoa, có 16-17 nhị và bầu noãn có 5-8 ô. Quả hình cầu tròn, đường kính chừng 4-7 cm, có mang đài hoa còn tồn tại; vỏ quả màu đỏ nâu, dai và xốp. Quả chứa 5-8 hạt: quanh hạt có lớp áo bọc màu trắng có vị ngọt, thơm và khá ngon. Cây trổ hoa vào tháng 2-5, ra quả trong các tháng 5-8.
(giống Garcinia còn gồm một số cây tương cận, đa số mọc trong vùng Đông Ấn = West Indies, trong đó có thể kể Garcinia cambogia hay Bứa, Garcinia cowa cung cấp quả Cowa-Mangosteen lớn hơn và có khía màu vàng apricot, vị chua; Garcinia indica hay Cocum = Conca cho quả chua, áo hạt màu tím, dùng làm giấm, hạt ép lấy dầu.)
III/ Thành phần dinh dưỡng:
100 gram phần ăn được (quả tươi) chứa
- Calories 60-63
- Chất đạm 0.5-0.60 g
- Chất béo 0.1-0.60 g
- Chất carbohydrates 10-14.7 g
- Chất sơ 5.0-5.10 g
- Calcium 0.01- 8 mg
- Sắt 0.20- 0.80 mg
- Phosphorus 0.02- 12.0 mg
- Thiamine (B1) 0.03 mg
- Vitamin C 1-2 mg
(ngoài ra còn có Potassium, Niacin…)
Quả măng cụt thường được ăn tươi, khía quanh quả, bẻ đôi theo đường khía, để ăn các múi trắng, bỏ hột trong, có vị ngọt, mọng nước. Tại đảo Sulu có giống măng cụt vị hơi chua, được dùng làm mứt trộn với đường thô. Tại Mã Lai, quả chưa chín hẳn được dùng làm mứt halwa manggis.
Măng cụt rất mau hư, có thể giữ 2-3 ngày ở nhiệt độ bình thường, khoảng 1 tuần trong tủ lạnh nhưng không thể giữ trong tủ đông lạnh (freezer)
IV/ Thành phần hóa học:
Thành phần hóa học thay đổi tùy theo bộ phận:
- Lá chứa nhiều xanthones loại di và tri hydroxy-methoxy (methyl, butyl…)
- Gỗ thân có maclurin, 1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy xanthone và xanthone-glucosides.
- Vỏ quả: có chrysanthemin, tannins (7-13 %), các hợp chất đắng loại xanthones như mangostin (gồm cả 3-isomangostin, 3-isomangostin hydrate, 1-iso mangostin, alpha và beta mangostin, gamma-mangostin, nor-mangostin…), garcinones A, B, C; kolanone; các xanthones như BR-xanthone-A, -B.
- Áo hạt: calabaxanthone, demethyl calabaxanthone, mangostin.
- Nhựa: chứa xanthones có những hoạt tính kháng sinh, chống sưng và kháng nấm, đặc biệt là một hợp chất loại biphenyl geranylated (Natural Products Tháng 4-2005)
V/ Dược tính:
1- Y dược dân gian:
- Tại Thái Lan: Vỏ măng cụt khô được dùng để trị tiêu chảy, chữa vết thương. Để trị tiêu chảy, vỏ khô được nấu với nước vôi, chắt lấy nước để uống.
- Tại Việt Nam: Vỏ quả được sắc dùng uống để trị tiêu chảy, kiết lỵ; Nước sắc được dùng để rửa vệ sinh phụ nữ.
- Tại Ấn Độ: Cây được gọi là mangustan, vỏ để trị tiêu chảy. Lá nấu để xúc miệng, trị lở trong miệng.
2- Các nghiên cứu dược học về măng cụt: (theo Thai Medicinal Plants)
- Tác dụng ức nén hệ thần kinh trung ương: Mangostin, một hợp chất loại xanthone và các chất chuyển hóa tạo ra nhưng phản ứng ức chế thần kinh trung ương gây các triệu chứng như sụp mi mắt (ptosis), dịu đau, giảm hoạt động của thần kinh vận động, tăng cường hoạt tính gây ngủ và gây mê của pentobarbital.
- Tác dụng trên hệ tim mạch: Mangostin-3, 6-di-O-glucoside tạo ra các hiệu ứng rõ rệt trên hệ tim mạch của ếch và chó: Gây kích thích cơ tim, tăng huyết áp nơi thú vật thử nghiệm. Cả hai tác dụng này đều bị ức chế một phần bởi propranolol.
- Tác dụng chống sưng, viêm: Mangostin, 1-isomanfostin và mangos tin triacetate có những hoạt tính chống sưng khi dùng chích qua màng phúc mô hay khi cho uống nơi chuột bị gây phù chân bằng carrageenan, hay bằng cấy cục bông gòn dưới da..Các chất này không có hiệu ứng ổn định màng tế bào. Các hoạt tính chống viêm này được giải thích là do ở ức chế hoạt động của men IKK (inhibitor kappaB kinase) do đó ngăn được sự chuyển mã (transcription) gen COX-2 và gây giảm bài tiết PGE(2) là tác nhân chính trong tiến trình gây sưng. (Molecular Pharmacology Tháng 9-2004). Gamma-mangostin, một xanthone loại tetraoxygenated diprenylated, có hoạt tính ức chế tương tranh hoạt động của cả COX-1 lẫn COX-2 ở liều IC50=0.8 và 2 micro M (Biochemistry Pharmacology Tháng 1/2002)
- Tác dụng chống ung loét bao tử: Mangostin có hoạt tính chống ung loét khi thử trên chuột.
- Hoạt tính kháng sinh: Có nhiều nghiên cứu ghi nhận khả năng kháng sinh của vỏ măng cụt. Các vi khuẩn thử nghiệm thuộc nhóm gây kiết lỵ như shigella dysenteriae, sh. flexneri, sh. sonnei và sh. boydii hoặc thuộc nhóm gây tiêu chảy như escherichia coli, streptococcus feacalis, vibryo cholerae. Hỗn hợp thô 5 loại xanthones, trích từ vỏ măng cụt (mangostin, beta-mangostin, gamma-mangostin, gartanin và 8-deoxygartanin) có tác dụng ức chế sự tăng trưởng của s.aureus.
Mangostin ức chế S. aureus (cả chủng bình thường lẫn chủng kháng penicillin ở nồng độ tối thiểu (MIC=Minimal inhibitory concentration là 7.8 mg/ml. Alpha, beta-mangostin và Garcinone B có tác dụng ức chế sự tăng trưởng của Mycobacterium tuberculosis ở nồng độ MIC= 6.25 mcg/ml. Dịch chiết vỏ măng cụt bằng ethanol có tiềm năng ức chế được protease của HIV-1. Hoạt tính này được xác định là do mangostin (IC50=5.12 +/- 0.41 microM) và gamma-mangostin (IC50= 4.81 +/- 0.32 microM) (Planta Medica Tháng 8-1996)
- Hoạt tính kháng nấm: Mangostin kháng được trichophyton menta grophytes, microsporum gypseum và epidermophyton floccosum ở nồng độ 1 mg/ml nhưng không tác dụng trên candida albicans. Nghiên cứu tại Trung Tâm Nghiên Cứu Nông Nghiệp Madras (Ấn độ) ghi nhận xanthones trích từ vỏ măng cụt có hoạt tính chống các loại nấm gây bệnh fusarium oxysporum vasinfectum, alternaria tenuis và dreschlera oryzae.
- Tác dụng diệt cá: Dịch chiết bằng nước vỏ măng cụt cho thấy có tác dụng diệt cá rô phi (Tilapia = Oreochromis niloticus) ở nồng độ 1,000 ppm.
- Hoạt tính chống ung thư: Có khá nhiều nghiên cứu về tác dụng của các xanthone trích từ vỏ măng cụt trên các tế bào ung thư:
- Nghiên cứu tại Veterans General Hospital, Đài Bắc (Trung Hoa Dân quốc) ghi nhận Garcinone E, một chất chuyển hóa xanthone trích từ vỏ măng cụt có hoạt tính diệt bào trên tế bào ung thư gan loại hepatocellular carcinomas, ung thư ruột và ung thư phổi (Planta Medica Số 11-2002).
- Nghiên cứu tại Bộ môn Sinh học về Dược Phân tử tại ĐH Dược Tohoku (Nhật) ghi nhận các xanthones trong vỏ măng cụt một số hoạt tính gây apoptosis (tiến trình tế bào được mã hóa để tự hủy diệt) trên các tế bào ung thư loại pheochromocytoma nơi chuột: Alpha-mangostin được cho là có khả năng ức chế được men Ca(2+)-ATPase là men gây ra apoptosis qua các lộ trình nơi mitochondria (Journal of Pharmacology Sciences (Tháng 5/2004)
- Nghiên cứu tại Bộ Môn Vi trùng Học, ĐH Dược Khoa, Viện ĐH Mahidol (Bangkok-Thai Lan) cho thấy dịch chiết vỏ măng cụt bằng methanol có hoạt tính khá mạnh ngăn chặn được sự phát triển, có tiềm lực oxy hóa mạnh, và gây apoptosis nơi tế bào ung thư vú của người (loại SKBR3) (Jourmnal of Ethnopharmacology Tháng 1/2004)
- Nghiên cứu tại Trường Y Khoa, ĐH Ryukyus (Okinawa-Nhật) cho thấy alpha-mangostin thô có tiềm lực ức chế được sự tăng trưởng, phát triển của các tế bào ung thư ruột loại ‘preneoplastic’ nơi chuột thử nghiệm (Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Tháng 10/2004)
- Nghiên cứu tại Viện Kỹ thuật Sinh Học Gifu (Nhật) ghi nhận càc xanthone trích từ vỏ măng cụt, nhất là alpha-mangostin, có tác dụng ức chế được sự tăng trưởng của tế bào ung thư máu nơi người (dòng tế bào ung thư HL60). Liều ức chế hoàn toàn là 10 microM (Journal of Natural Products Tháng 8/2003)
Tài liệu sử dụng:
•Thai Medicinal Plants (Norman Farnsworth & Nunthavan Buniapra phatsara).
•Từ điển Cây thuốc Việ Nam (Võ văn Chi)
•Whole Foods Companion (Dianne Onstad)
•The Oxford Companion to Food (Alain Davidson)
**** QUY TRÌNH, KỶ THUẬT TRỒNG VÀ CHĂM SÓC VÀ THU HOẠCH CÂY MĂNG CỤT
**** KỶ THUẬT TRỒNG CÂY MĂNG CỤT :
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One of the most praised of tropical fruits, and certainly the most esteemed fruit in the family Guttiferae, the mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana L., is almost universally known or heard of by this name. There are numerous variations in nomenclature: among Spanish-speaking people, it is called mangostan; to the French, it is mangostanier, mangoustanier, mangouste or mangostier; in Portuguese, it is mangostao, mangosta or mangusta; in Dutch, it is manggis or manggistan; in Vietnamese, mang cut; in Malaya, it may be referred to in any of these languages or by the local terms, mesetor, semetah, or sementah; in the Philippines, it is mangis or mangostan. Throughout the Malay Archipelago, there are many different spellings of names similar to most of the above.
Plate XLI: MANGOSTEEN, Garcinia mangostana—Painted by Dr. M.J. Dijkman Description
The mangosteen tree is very slow-growing, erect, with a pyramidal crown; attains 20 to 82 ft (6-25 m) in height, has dark-brown or nearly black, flaking bark, the inner bark containing much yellow, gummy, bitter latex. The evergreen, opposite, short-stalked leaves are ovate-oblong or elliptic, leathery and thick, dark-green, slightly glossy above, yellowish-green and dull beneath; 3 1/2 to 10 in (9-25 cm) long, 1 3/4 to 4 in (4.5-10 cm) wide, with conspicuous, pale midrib. New leaves are rosy. Flowers, 1 1/2 to 2 in (4-5 cm) wide and fleshy, may be male or hermaphrodite on the same tree. The former are in clusters of 3-9 at the branch tips; there are 4 sepals and 4 ovate, thick, fleshy petals, green with red spots on the outside, yellowish-red inside, and many stamens though the aborted anthers bear no pollen. The hermaphrodite are borne singly or in pairs at the tips of young branchlets; their petals may be yellowish-green edged with red or mostly red, and are quickly shed.
The fruit, capped by the prominent calyx at the stem end and with 4 to 8 triangular, flat remnants of the stigma in a rosette at the apex, is round, dark-purple to red-purple and smooth externally; 1 1/3 to 3 in (3.4-7.5 cm) in diameter. The rind is 1/4 to 3/8 in (6-10 mm) thick, red in cross-section, purplish-white on the inside. It contains bitter yellow latex and a purple, staining juice. There are 4 to 8 triangular segments of snow-white, juicy, soft flesh (actually the arils of the seeds). The fruit may be seedless or have 1 to 5 fully developed seeds, ovoid-oblong, somewhat flattened, 1 in (2.5 cm) long and 5/8 in (1.6 cm) wide, that cling to the flesh. The flesh is slightly acid and mild to distinctly acid in flavor and is acclaimed as exquisitely luscious and delicious.
Origin and Distribution
The place of origin of the mangosteen is unknown but is believed to be the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas; still, there are wild trees in the forests of Kemaman, Malaya. Corner suggests that the tree may have been first domesticated in Thailand, or Burma. It is much cultivated in Thailand–where there were 9,700 acres (4,000 ha) in 1965–also in Kampuchea, southern Vietnam and Burma, throughout Malaya and Singapore. The tree was planted in Ceylon about 1800 and in India in 1881. There it succeeds in 4 limited areas–the Nilgiri Hills, the Tinnevelly district of southern Madras, the Kanya-kumani district at the southernmost tip of the Madras peninsula, and in Kerala State in southwestern India. The tree is fairly common only in the provinces of Mindanao and Sulu (or Jolo) in the Philippines. It is rare in Queensland, where it has been tried many times since 1854, and poorly represented in tropical Africa (Zanzibar, Ghana, Gabon and Liberia). There were fruiting trees in greenhouses in England in 1855. The mangosteen was introduced into Trinidad from the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew, England, between 1850 and 1860 and the first fruit was borne in 1875. It reached the Panama Canal Zone and Puerto Rico in 1903 but there are only a few trees in these areas, in Jamaica, Dominica and Cuba, and some scattered around other parts of the West Indies. The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Java in 1906 (S.P.I. #17146). A large test block of productive trees has been maintained at the Lancetilla Experimental Station at Tela, Honduras, for many years. Quite a few trees distributed by the United Fruit Company long ago have done well on the Atlantic coast of Guatemala. In 1924, Dr. Wilson Popenoe saw the mangosteen growing at one site in Ecuador. In 1939, 15,000 seeds were distributed by the Canal Zone Experiment Gardens to many areas of tropical America. It is probable that only a relatively few seedlings survived. It is known that many die during the first year. Dr. Victor Patiño has observed flourishing mangosteen trees at the site of an old mining settlement in Mariquita, Colombia, in the Magdalena Valley and the fruits are sold on local markets. Dierberger Agricola Ltda., of Sao Paulo, included the mangosteen in their nursery catalog in 1949.
Despite early trials in Hawaii, the tree has not become well acclimatized and is still rare in those islands. Neither has it been successful in California. It encounters very unfavorable soil and climate in Florida. Some plants have been grown for a time in containers in greenhouses. One tree in a very protected coastal location and special soil lived to produce a single fruit and then succumbed to winter cold.
Despite the oft-repeated Old World enthusiasm for this fruit, it is not always viewed as worth the trouble to produce. In Jamaica, it is regarded as nice but overrated; not comparable to a good field-ripe pineapple or a choice mango.
Varieties
According to Corner, the fruit from seedling trees is fairly uniform; only one distinct variation is known and that is in the Sulu Islands. The fruit is larger, the rind thicker than normal, and the flesh more acid; the flavor more pronounced. In North Borneo, a seemingly wild form has only 4 carpels, each containing a fully-developed seed, and this is probably not unique.
Climate
The mangosteen is ultra-tropical. It cannot tolerate temperatures below 40º F (4.44º C), nor above 100º F (37.78º C). Nursery seedlings are killed at 45º F (7.22º C).
It is limited in Malaya to elevations below 1,500 ft (450 m). In Madras it grows from 250 to 5,000 ft (76-1,500 m) above sea-level. Attempts to establish it north of 200 latitude have all failed.
It ordinarily requires high atmospheric humidity and an annual rainfall of at least 50 in (127 cm), and no long periods of drought. In Dominica, mangosteens growing in an area having 80 in (200 cm) of rain yearly required special care, but those in another locality with 105 in (255 cm) and soil with better moisture- holding capacity, flourished.
Soil
The tree is not adapted to limestone and does best in deep, rich organic soil, especially sandy loam or laterite. In India, the most productive specimens are on clay containing much coarse material and a little silt. Sandy alluvial soils are unsuitable and sand low in humus contributes to low yields. The tree needs good drainage and the water table ought to be about 6 ft (1.8 m) below ground level. However, in the Canal Zone, productive mangosteen groves have been established where it is too wet for other fruit trees–in swamps requiring drainage ditches between rows and in situations where the roots were bathed with flowing water most of the year, in spite of the fact that standing water in nursery beds will kill seedlings. The mangosteen must be sheltered from strong winds and salt spray, as well as saline soil or water.
Propagation
Technically, the so-called "seeds" are not true seeds but adventitious embryos, or hypocotyl tubercles, inasmuch as there has been no sexual fertilization. When growth begins, a shoot emerges from one end of the seed and a root from the other end. But this root is short-lived and is replaced by roots which develop at the base of the shoot. The process of reproduction being vegetative, there is naturally little variation in the resulting trees and their fruits. Some of the seeds are polyembryonic, producing more than one shoot. The individual nucellar embryos can be separated, if desired, before planting.
Inasmuch as the percentage of germination is directly related to the weight of the seed, only plump, fully developed seeds should be chosen for planting. Even these will lose viability in 5 days after removal from the fruit, though they are viable for 3 to 5 weeks in the fruit. Seeds packed in lightly dampened peat moss, sphagnum moss or coconut fiber in airtight containers have remained viable for 3 months. Only 22% germination has been realized in seeds packed in ground charcoal for 15 days. Soaking in water for 24 hours expedites and enhances the rate of germination. Generally, sprouting occurs in 20 to 22 days and is complete in 43 days.
Because of the long, delicate taproot and poor lateral root development, transplanting is notoriously difficult. It must not be attempted after the plants reach 2 ft (60 cm). At that time the depth of the taproot may exceed that height. There is greater seedling survival if seeds are planted directly in the nursery row than if first grown in containers and then transplanted to the nursery. The nursery soil should be 3 ft (1 m) deep, at least. The young plants take 2 years or more to reach a height of 12 in (30 cm), when they can be taken up with a deep ball of earth and set out. Fruiting may take place in 7 to 9 years from planting but usually not for 10 or even 20 years.
Conventional vegetative propagation of the mangosteen is difficult. Various methods of grafting have failed. Cuttings and air-layers, with or without growth-promoting chemicals, usually fail to root or result in deformed, short-lived plants. Inarching on different rootstocks has appeared promising at first but later incompatibility has been evident with all except G. xanthochymus Hook. f. (G tinctoria Dunn.) or G. lateriflora Bl., now commonly employed in the Philippines.
In Florida, approach-grafting has succeeded only by planting a seed of G. xanthochymus about 1 1/4 in (3 cm) from the base of a mangosteen seedling in a container and, when the stem of the G. xanthochymus seedling has become 1/8 in (3 mm) thick, joining it onto the 3/16 to 1/4 in (5-6 mm) thick stem of the mangosteen at a point about 4 in (10 cm) above the soil. When the graft has healed, the G. xanthochymus seedling is beheaded. The mangosteen will make good progress having both root systems to grow on, while the G. xanthochymus rootstock will develop very little.
Culture
A spacing of 35 to 40 ft (10.7-12 m) is recommended. Planting is preferably done at the beginning of the rainy season. Pits 4 x 4 x 4 1/2 ft (1.2 x l.2 x l.3 m) are prepared at least 30 days in advance, enriched with organic matter and topsoil and left to weather. The young tree is put in place very carefully so as not to injure the root and given a heavy watering. Partial shading with palm fronds or by other means should be maintained for 3 to 5 years. Indian growers give each tree regular feeding with well-rotted manure–100 to 200 lbs (45-90 kg)–and peanut meal–10 to 15 lbs (4.5-6.8 kg) total, per year.
Some of the most fruitful mangosteen trees are growing on the banks of streams, lakes, ponds or canals where the roots are almost constantly wet. However, dry weather just before blooming time and during flowering induces a good fruit-set. Where a moist planting site is not available, irrigation ditches should be dug to make it possible to maintain an adequate water supply and the trees are irrigated almost daily during the dry season.
In Malaya and Ceylon, it is a common practice to spread a mulch of coconut husks or fronds to retain moisture. A 16-in (40-cm) mulch of grass restored trees that had begun dehydrating in Liberia. It has been suggested that small inner branches be pruned from old, unproductive trees to stimulate bearing. In Thailand, the tree is said to take 12 to 20 years to fruit. In Panama and Puerto Rico trees grown from large seed and given good culture have borne in six years.
Season and Harvesting
At low altitudes in Ceylon the fruit ripens from May to July; at higher elevations, in July and August or August and September. In India, there are 2 distinct fruiting seasons, one in the monsoon period (July-October) and another from April through June. Puerto Rican trees in full sun fruit in July and August; shaded trees, in November and December.
Cropping is irregular and the yield varies from tree to tree and from season to season. The first crop may be 200 to 300 fruits. Average yield of a full-grown tree is about 500 fruits. The yield steadily increases up to the 30th year of bearing when crops of 1,000 to 2,000 fruits may be obtained. In Madras, individual trees between the ages of 20 and 45 years have borne 2,000 to 3,000 fruits. Productivity gradually declines thereafter, though the tree will still be fruiting at 100 years of age.
Ripeness is gauged by the full development of color and slight softening. Picking may be done when the fruits are slightly underripe but they must be fully mature (developed) or they will not ripen after picking. The fruits must be harvested by hand from ladders or by means of a cutting pole and not be allowed to fall.
Keeping Quality
In dry, warm, closed storage, mangosteens can be held 20 to 25 days. Longer periods cause the outer skin to toughen and the rind to become rubbery; later, the rind hardens and becomes difficult to open and the flesh turns dry.
Ripe mangosteens keep well for 3 to 4 weeks in storage at 40º to 55º F (4.44º-12.78º C). Trials in India have shown that optimum conditions for cold storage are temperatures of 39º to 42º F (3.89º-5.56º C) and relative humidity of 85 to 90%, which maintain quality for 49 days. It is recommended that the fruits be wrapped in tissue paper and packed 25-to-the-box in light wooden crates with excelsior padding. Fruits picked slightly unripe have been shipped from Burma to the United Kingdom at 50º to 55º F (10º-12.78º C). From 1927 to 1929, trial shipments were made from Java to Holland at 37.4º F (approximately 2.38º C) and the fruits kept in good condition for 24 days.
Pests and Diseases
Few pests have been reported. A leaf-eating caterpillar in India may perhaps be the same as that which attacks new shoots in the Philippines and which has been identified as Orgyra sp. of the tussock moth family, Lymantridae. A small ant, Myrnelachista ramulorum, in Puerto Rico, colonizes the tree, tunnels into the trunk and branches, and damages the new growth. Mites sometimes deface the fruits with small bites and scratches. Fully ripe fruits are attacked by monkeys, bats and rats in Asia.
In Puerto Rico, thread blight caused by the fungus, Pellicularia koleroga, is often seen on branchlets, foliage and fruits of trees in shaded, humid areas. The fruits may become coated with webbing and ruined. In Malaya, the fungus, Zignoella garcineae, gives rise to "canker"–tuberous growths on the branches, causing a fatal dying-back of foliage, branches and eventually the entire tree. Breakdown in storage is caused by the fungi Diplodia gossypina, Pestalotia sp., Phomopsis sp., Gloeosporium sp., and Rhizopus nigricans.
A major physiological problem called "gamboge" is evidenced by the oozing of latex onto the outer surface of the fruits and on the branches during periods of heavy and continuous rains. It does not affect eating quality. Fruit-cracking may occur because of excessive absorption of moisture. In cracked fruits the flesh will be swollen and mushy. Bruising caused by the force of storms may be an important factor in both of these abnormalities. Fruits exposed to strong sun may also exude latex. Mangosteens produced in Honduras often have crystal-like "stones" in the flesh and they may render the fruit completely inedible.
Food Uses
To select the best table fruits, choose those with the highest number of stigma lobes at the apex, for these have the highest number of fleshy segments and accordingly the fewest seeds. The numbers always correspond. Mangosteens are usually eaten fresh as dessert. One need only hold the fruit with the stem-end downward, take a sharp knife and cut around the middle completely through the rind, and lift off the top half, which leaves the fleshy segments exposed in the colorful "cup"–the bottom half of the rind. The segments are lifted out by fork.
The fleshy segments are sometimes canned, but they are said to lose their delicate flavor in canning, especially if pasteurized for as much as 10 minutes. Tests have shown that it is best to use a 40% sirup and sterilize for only 5 minutes. The more acid fruits are best for preserving. To make jam, in Malaya, seedless segments are boiled with an equal amount of sugar and a few cloves for 15 to 20 minutes and then put into glass jars. In the Philippines, a preserve is made by simply boiling the segments in brown sugar, and the seeds may be included to enrich the flavor.
The seeds are sometimes eaten alone after boiling or roasting.
The rind is rich in pectin. After treatment with 6% sodium chloride to eliminate astringency, the rind is made into a purplish jelly.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion*
Calories60-63
Moisture80.2-84.9 g
Protein0.50-0.60 g
Fat0.1-0.6 g
Total Carbohydrates14.3-15.6 g
Total Sugars16.42-16.82 g
(sucrose, glucose and fructose)
Fiber5.0-5.1 g
Ash0.2-0.23 g
Calcium0.01-8.0 mg
Phosphorus0.02-12.0 mg
Iron0.20-0.80 mg
Thiamine0.03 mg
Ascorbic Acid1.0-2.0 mg
*Minimum/maximum values from analyses made in the Philippines and Washington, D.C.
Phytin (an organic phosphorus compound) constitutes up to 0.68% on a dry-weight basis. The flesh amounts to 31% of the whole fruit.
Other Uses
Mangosteen twigs are used as chewsticks in Ghana. The fruit rind contains 7 to 14% catechin tannin and rosin, and is used for tanning leather in China. It also yields a black dye.
Wood: In Thailand, all non-bearing trees are felled, so the wood is available but usually only in small dimensions. It is dark-brown, heavy, almost sinks in water, and is moderately durable. It has been used to make handles for spears, also rice pounders, and is employed in construction and cabinetwork.
Medicinal Uses: Dried fruits are shipped from Singapore to Calcutta and to China for medicinal use. The sliced and dried rind is powdered and administered to overcome dysentery. Made into an ointment, it is applied on eczema and other skin disorders. The rind decoction is taken to relieve diarrhea and cystitis, gonorrhea and gleet and is applied externally as an astringent lotion. A portion of the rind is steeped in water overnight and the infusion given as a remedy for chronic diarrhea in adults and children. Filipinos employ a decoction of the leaves and bark as a febrifuge and to treat thrush, diarrhea, dysentery and urinary disorders. In Malaya, an infusion of the leaves, combined with unripe banana and a little benzoin is applied to the wound of circumcision. A root decoction is taken to regulate menstruation. A bark extract called "amibiasine", has been marketed for the treatment of amoebic dysentery.
The rind of partially ripe fruits yields a polyhydroxy-xanthone derivative termed mangostin, also ß-mangostin. That of fully ripe fruits contains the xanthones, gartanin, 8-disoxygartanin, and normangostin. A derivative of mangostin, mangostin-e, 6-di-O-glucoside, is a central nervous system depressant and causes a rise in blood pressure.
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